750,000 dead and nearly 1,750,000 wounded.

When Strachey's Eminent Victorians appeared in May 1918, it resonated with a war-weary public, shocked by the horrific loss of life and, particularly among intellectuals, critical of the decisions that had led Britain into a devastating four-year war. As a pacifist, Strachey recognized that the leaders responsible for Britain's entry into war in 1914 were products of the late Victorian era. Strachey's friend, David Garnett, observed that "Lytton’s essays were designed to undermine the foundations on which the age that brought war had been built" (quoted by Richard D. Altick in "Eminent Victorianism: What Lytton Strachey Hath Wrought").

Through his satirical depictions of four esteemed figures from the Victorian era, Strachey aimed to expose and criticize the hypocrisy beneath the surface of Victorian ideals, striking a blow to its esteemed reputation. As Altick notes, Strachey was not the first to do this. Writers like George Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, and G. K. Chesterton had already been vocal critics of Victorian thought. Following the publication of Eminent Victorians, the anti-Victorian sentiment grew, and the book also revolutionized the genre of biography. In both Britain and America, numerous imitators of Strachey penned "debunking" biographies, bringing down more eminent figures from their exalted positions.

Satire

Satire is the art of using humor and wit to criticize or mock a subject. In Eminent Victorians, Strachey's satire is extensive. He employs it to belittle not only his main biographical subjects and numerous minor characters but also many of their core beliefs, particularly those related to religion.

Strachey's tone is consistently mocking and somewhat amused as he recounts the peculiar behaviors of his subjects. He is eager to make fun wherever possible. Through satire, Strachey portrays Manning as a man driven by worldly ambitions. For instance, he suggests that Manning was drawn to the Oxford Movement not for its religious truths, but because it elevated the status of clergy:

The cleric was distinct from his lay peers; he was an entity apart, chosen by Divine will and sanctified by Divine mysteries. It was a relief to discover, when one had thought oneself merely a clergyman, that one might, in fact, be something more—a priest.

Strachey satirizes nearly every aspect of Manning: his active early career as a rural clergyman (“he was an excellent judge of horseflesh”), his diary entries detailing his struggles with the overwhelming temptations of ambition, his serious study of the Church Fathers to soothe his religious doubts, and the meticulous attention with which, in his later years, he examined his papers documenting the “vanished incidents of a remote past”: “He would snip with scissors the pages of ancient journals, and with delicate ecclesiastical fingers drop unknown mysteries into the flames.”

Strachey also uses satire in his depiction of Florence Nightingale’s lofty religious aspirations. In her later years, she aimed to correct the errors of contemporary Christianity, but Strachey implies that Nightingale’s self-assessment of her intellect greatly contrasts with his own view of her. He describes her intentions:

She would amend these errors. She would correct the mistakes of the Churches; she would pinpoint exactly where Christianity was misguided; and she would explain to the artisans the true facts of the matter.

The author highlights Nightingale’s self-belief only to mock it, using satire to expose her arrogance and inflated self-importance.

Strachey’s satire is most unrelenting in his portrayal of Arnold, who clearly provokes his disdain. For example, after a lengthy paragraph where Strachey describes Arnold’s appealing appearance in flattering terms, suggesting a man of “ardour and determination,” he concludes the paragraph by mocking Arnold, undermining everything previously stated:

And yet—what was it?—was it in the lines of the mouth or the furrow on the brow?—it was difficult to pinpoint, but unmistakably—there was a slightly confused expression on the face of Dr. Arnold.

The suggestion is that Arnold's confused expression contradicts his apparent self-assurance in all matters.

Strachey humorously critiques Arnold's perspectives on education, as well as his political, social, and religious stances. Regarding religious tolerance, for instance, "He believed in toleration . . . within limits; that is to say, in the toleration of those with whom he agreed."

Among the various minor characters targeted by Strachey's satire was the conservative Lord Panmure, the Secretary of State for War, who attempted to hinder Nightingale's reform initiatives:

It was exceedingly bothersome; and Lord Panmure almost began to wish for a more suitable endeavor—perhaps discussing the constitution of the Free Church of Scotland—a topic he found deeply fascinating.

Again, there is a tone of mild amusement, gentler this time, leaving the reader with an impression of a man absorbed in a highly mundane issue, suggesting a limited intellectual scope inappropriate for someone in a significant governmental role—precisely the impression Strachey aims to convey.

Irony

Irony typically indicates that the author's expressed words are contrary to his actual intent. The book's title, Eminent Victorians, is itself ironic, and much of Strachey's satire relies on irony.

Two significant examples of irony appear in the biography of George Gordon. Gordon arrived in China just in time to "witness the destruction of the Summer Palace at Peking—the act by which Lord Elgin, in the name of European civilisation, took vengeance upon the barbarism of the East." It is evident that in this context, "civilisation" and "barbarism" have reversed meanings.

Strachey similarly critiques Western cultural intolerance and cruelty when he concludes Gordon's biography with a remark on the battle of Omdurman in Sudan, thirteen years after Khartoum's fall and Gordon's death: "At any rate it had all ended very happily—in a glorious slaughter of twenty thousand Arabs, a vast addition to the British Empire, and a step in the Peerage for Sir Evelyn Baring." Clearly, for Strachey, there was nothing genuinely happy or glorious about this event.

Innuendo

Innuendo refers to an indirect suggestion, often used to imply something negative or unpleasant. Strachey employs innuendo when discussing Manning’s conversion to Roman Catholicism. Post-conversion, Manning found himself at the lowest rung of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, which might suggest his conversion was driven by authentic religious convictions rather than worldly aspirations. However, Strachey casts doubt on this by insinuating that a meeting between Manning and the pope three years prior may have involved some undisclosed promises. Manning shared little about this meeting, prompting Strachey to label it a ‘‘mysterious interview.’’ The implication is that the pope might have promised Manning some advancement in exchange for his conversion, though no evidence is presented to support this claim.

Strachey also subtly hints through innuendo that Gordon may have struggled with alcohol and homosexuality.

Figurative Language

A significant metaphor highlights the structural theme within Manning’s biography. Throughout his narrative, Strachey juxtaposes the pragmatic, scheming Manning with the more romantic and idealistic figure of Newman. This contrast culminates later in the book, where Manning, attempting to thwart Newman’s plans, is depicted as an eagle, while Newman is portrayed as a dove. The outcome is inevitable: ‘‘there was a hovering, a swoop, and then the quick beak and the relentless talons did their work.’’

In ‘‘Florence Nightingale,’’ Strachey utilizes animal imagery. Nightingale is at one moment likened to Manning as an eagle, but more notably compared to a tigress in the jungle. The tigress’s prey is Sidney Herbert, portrayed metaphorically as a stag, ‘‘a comely, gallant creature springing through the forest.’’ As with the eagle and the dove, the conclusion is predetermined: ‘‘One has the image of those wide eyes fascinated, suddenly by something feline, something strong; there is a pause, and then the tigress has her claws in the quivering haunches; and then—!’’

1800s: The Industrial Revolution in Britain sets the global pace, while the British Empire continues its expansion. Over a quarter of the world's territories, including India, Canada, Australia, South Africa, parts of East and West Africa, Ceylon, Malaya, Hong Kong, Singapore, and eventually Egypt and Sudan, fall under British control.

1920s: Following the conclusion of World War I in 1918, communism takes hold in Russia. The British Empire faces decline, and movements for self-governance in the colonies gain momentum. In Britain, working-class organizations grow stronger, and socialism becomes more appealing. Fascism and Nazism are on the rise in Italy and Germany, respectively.

Today: Although Britain's economy thrives, it no longer maintains an empire. Instead, Britain is a member of the European Union, having ceded its 19th-century status as the world's leading superpower to the United States.

1800s: Church attendance is high among the middle and upper classes in England and serves as a status symbol. However, working-class families largely do not attend church.

1920s and 1930s: Overall, church attendance declines, except among Roman Catholics. This decrease is partly due to the rise of social activities like cinema, sports, and the proliferation of newspapers and books. Additionally, churches take unpopular stances on issues such as divorce and public entertainment on Sundays, further contributing to the decline.

Today: Attendance at church services continues to fall, and Britain has largely become a secular society. A poll from 2000 reveals that fewer than a million people, or less than two percent of the population, regularly attend Sunday services, a figure that is half of what it was in the 1970s.

1800s: Society is governed by a strict moral code, with formal manners and outward appearances being crucial. Attitudes toward sex and the human body are conservative, with elaborate and formal dress covering the body completely. Despite this public facade of Victorian morality, hypocrisy abounds, with prostitution thriving in London and women's rights being severely restricted.

1920s: The post-World War I era sees a backlash against Victorian conservatism. Clothing becomes less formal, with women and men participating in activities like hiking in shorts, and swimsuits becoming briefer for both genders. In 1920, British women gain the right to vote.

Today: British society is more relaxed than in past generations, with less rigid rules governing interactions between the sexes. Gender roles have become more fluid, and women pursue careers in fields once dominated by men. Unlike their Victorian predecessors who favored large families, modern British families tend to be smaller, with power more equally shared between spouses. In contrast to Victorian modesty, discussions about sex are open, and in a consumer-driven society, sex is used in advertising to promote everything from cars to cigarettes.

Sources

Altick, Richard D., ‘‘Eminent Victorianism: What Lytton Strachey Hath Wrought,’’ in American Scholar, Vol. 64, No. 1, Winter 1995, pp. 81–89.

Gittings, Robert, The Nature of Biography, University of Washington Press, 1978, p. 35.

Holroyd, Michael, Lytton Strachey and the Bloomsbury Group, Penguin, 1971, pp. 161–242, 297.

———, Lytton Strachey: The New Biography, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995.

Kaplan, Justin, ‘‘A Culture of Biography,’’ in The Literary Biography: Problems and Solutions, edited by Dale Salwak, University of Iowa Press, 1996, p. 7.

Sanders, Charles Richard, Lytton Strachey: His Mind and Art, Yale University Press, 1957, pp. 164–211.

Simpson, F. A., ‘‘Methods of Biography,’’ in Spectator, Vol. 172, January 7, 1944, pp. 7–8.

Further Reading

Ferns, John, Lytton Strachey, Twayne, 1988. This book examines Strachey's evolution as a writer in connection with his life experiences. Ferns illustrates how Eminent Victorians emerged from Strachey's opposition to World War I, attributing blame to the late-Victorian era.

Iyengar, K. R. Srinivasa, Lytton Strachey: A Critical Study, Kennikat Press, 1967, pp. 52–61. Iyengar reviews Strachey's works, commending his clarity of insight and artistic sensibility, and considers him a role model for modern biographers.

Kallich, Martin, The Psychological Milieu of Lytton Strachey, Bookman Associates, 1961. This book explores Strachey's writings through the lens of Freudian psychoanalytic principles.

Whittemore, Reed, ‘‘Biography and Literature,’’ in the Sewanee Review, Vol. 100, No. 3, Summer 1992, pp. 382–96. Whittemore contrasts biographical works by Virginia Woolf, Sigmund Freud, Strachey, Patricia O’Toole, and Joanna L. Stratton, highlighting the structural developments in the biography genre.