contrast to the emotional release of the tragedies, satyr-plays offered a more lighthearted alternative. In these performances, the chorus dressed as satyrs—creatures that were half-human, half-animal—and engaged in rowdy yet clever routines reminiscent of later comedic forms like slapstick or vaudeville. The third genre of Greek drama, comedy, was not part of the Dionysia festival. Nevertheless, numerous comedies from the fifth century B.C. have survived, serving a similar purpose of providing emotional release. Additionally, comedies were often overtly political, allowing playwrights to offer thinly veiled critiques of contemporary events.

The Legend of the House of Atreus

The tale of Electra focuses on a segment of the tragic saga of the House of Atreus, a family plagued by a curse from its very beginnings. According to myth, the family's patriarch, Atreus, was the grandson of Tantalus, who committed the heinous act of killing his own son and serving the pieces to the gods at a banquet. As punishment for this dreadful crime, the gods condemned Tantalus to eternal torment in the underworld and miraculously brought his son, Pelops, back to life. Favored by the god Poseidon, Pelops won a chariot race, securing the hand of the beautiful Hippodamia. However, his victory was only possible because Hippodamia bribed the opposing charioteer to deliberately lose. When the charioteer came to collect his reward, Pelops killed him, and with his dying breath, the charioteer cursed Pelops and his descendants.

Atreus, one of the sons of Pelops and Hippodamia, eventually became king of Mycenae. His brother, Thyestes, betrayed him by seducing his wife, and in a furious response, Atreus killed Thyestes's sons and served them to him at a feast, echoing the crime of his ancestor Tantalus. Upon discovering Atreus's gruesome act, Thyestes cursed Atreus and his lineage. To avenge his sons, Thyestes was told by the Delphic Oracle that he needed to father a child with his own daughter, Pelopia. This union resulted in the birth of Aegisthus.

Atreus mistakenly believed Aegisthus to be his own son and raised him as such, having married Pelopia in the interim. However, upon learning that Thyestes was his real father, Aegisthus killed Atreus. Consequently, Atreus's legitimate sons, Agamemnon and Menelaus, were exiled as Thyestes seized the throne of Mycenae. The feud between Agamemnon and Aegisthus, which is central to the story of Electra, began at this point.

Agamemnon wed Clytemnestra, and they had two daughters, Iphigeneia and Electra, as well as a son, Orestes. During Agamemnon's campaign in the Trojan War, Clytemnestra took Aegisthus as her lover and plotted to murder Agamemnon upon his return. Together, Clytemnestra and Aegisthus succeeded in assassinating Agamemnon. The plot of Electra revolves around Electra and Orestes's scheme to avenge their father's death by killing Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.

Sophocles's audience would have been well-acquainted with the legend of the House of Atreus and would have noticed the differences between his version of the story and other plays that depicted the same ill-fated family. Classical audiences did not need to be shown the entire legend in a single play; instead, each play focused on a significant part of the overarching tale, assuming the audience already knew the broader legend.

Stichomythia

Stichomythia refers to a rapid exchange of brief—often one-line—dialogue between characters. These exchanges are frequently confrontational, with language serving as a stand-in for physical aggression. This technique originated in Greek tragedy and is found in Roman tragedies, such as those by Seneca, as well as in Elizabethan plays influenced by classical works, like Shakespeare's Hamlet and Richard III. In the play Electra, stichomythic dialogue occurs between Electra and Chrysothemis early on, and between Electra and Orestes during the revelation scene.

Tragic Irony

Tragic irony is a complex rhetorical device where a character believes one thing to be true, but the reality is quite the opposite. This device not only enhances the drama but also underscores a thematic element, highlighting the limitations of human understanding: what we consider certain may not be, and what we perceive as good may end up being detrimental, while perceived evils might lead to good outcomes.

In Electra, tragic irony is evident in several instances. One example is when Electra mistakenly believes that Orestes is dead while Chrysothemis believes he is alive, though Orestes is indeed alive. This irony surfaces again when Orestes, in disguise, informs Electra of his own death, only to reveal the truth when her mourning prompts him to confess.

Tragedy

In his Poetics, Aristotle describes tragedy as a dramatic work depicting the downfall or ruin of an individual of high standing. In both Classical and Renaissance tragedy, this person is often a king, yet anyone elevated in political, ethical, or spiritual terms can experience tragedy. For instance, Christopher Marlowe's Dr. Faustus is a tragedy because, although Faustus is not nobility, he is a highly esteemed scholar who falls due to his intellectual arrogance.

Tragic heroes typically fall partly due to fate, but their downfall is not solely due to destiny; it often involves a personal flaw, with "hubris" or excessive pride frequently triggering their decline. In Sophocles's Oedipus Rex, King Oedipus's downfall is driven by his quest to uncover the cause of the plague tormenting his kingdom, a plague caused by his own actions of killing his father and marrying his mother. In Hamlet, it is Hamlet's indecision and delay that lead to tragedy. Electra's family is cursed due to the transgressions of her ancestors, setting the stage for her tragic fate. However, her specific downfall is linked to her inability to balance her intense grief over her father's murder with rationality, considering her mother's culpability is somewhat excused by Agamemnon's role in the sacrifice of their daughter Iphigeneia.

The Athenian Age: In ancient Greece, the legal system was primarily centered around the concept of revenge. However, during the peak of Athenian culture in the fifth century B.C., a more sophisticated legal framework emerged, which laid the foundation for many modern legal principles.

Today: Legal systems are designed to prevent individuals from taking personal revenge or acting as vigilantes. Instead, grievances are addressed through the judicial system.

The Athenian Age: Cremating the deceased and preserving their ashes in urns was considered a mark of respect. These urns were large, adorned with images that identified the individual and depicted significant events from their life. For soldiers, the urns might illustrate their most renowned battles.

Today: Although some people choose cremation, many are interred in caskets underground.

The Athenian Age: The lives of Greeks were largely governed by their beliefs about the intentions of the gods. The worship of multiple deities, representing various facets of life such as war, music, love, and agriculture, was widespread.

Today: Monotheistic religions, which involve the worship of a single deity, are predominant globally. While some individuals continue to believe their destinies are influenced by a higher power, many others are of the view that humanity has the ability to shape and direct its own path.

SOURCES

Hamilton, Edith. The Greek Way, W.W. Norton (New York), 1930, pp. 258-70.

Woodward, Thomas. "The Electra of Sophocles" in Sophocles: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Woodward, Prentice-Hall, 1966, pp. 125-45.

Woolf, Virginia. "On Sophocles's Electra" in Sophocles: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Thomas Woodward, Prentice-Hall, 1966, pp. 122-24.

FURTHER READING

Blundell, Sue. Women in Ancient Greece, Harvard University Press, 1995. This book explores the world of women during Sophocles's era, highlighting that despite their restricted roles, they significantly contributed to the cultural and artistic realms of Ancient Greece.

Nardo, Don, Editor. Readings on Sophocles, Greenhaven Press, 1997. This compilation of critical essays on Sophocles includes a helpful appendix on Greek theatrical production and a biography of the playwright.

Woodward, Thomas, Editor. Sophocles: A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice-Hall, 1966. Woodward's collection features his own essay, "The Electra of Sophocles," along with Virginia Woolf's piece, "On Sophocles's Electra." The anthology provides an outstanding critical analysis of several of Sophocles's dramatic works.