Analysis

Blank Verse

Christopher Marlowe wrote Edward II in blank verse, a verse form utilizing unrhymed lines with traditional meter. Marlowe didn't invent blank verse, but he did popularize it among English dramatists, many of whom wrote in rhyming verse prior to the posthumous publication of Edward II. Marlowe's blank verse freed him from the constraints of traditional rhyming poetry, allowing him to write in a natural rhythm, producing dialogue that sounded colloquial and unrehearsed. He adhered to the constraints of iambic pentameter (lines of ten syllables and five metrical feet, where the "feet" are pairs of one stressed and one unstressed syllable) but was otherwise free to experiment. Shakespeare would continue Marlowe's experiments in blank verse to great effect.

Historical Drama

Edward II falls into the category of "historical drama"—a genre for which Shakespeare was famous, with Richard III being a prime example. Historical drama is one of the three main genres of Western theater, alongside tragedy and comedy. Traditionally, history plays are based on historical narratives of some importance, as is Edward II, which dramatizes the downfall of King Edward II of England, who reigned from 1307 to 1327. Other important historical figures include Queen Isabella, Edward's wife; Piers Gaveston, Edward's lover and favorite; and Mortimer Junior, Earl of March, who leads the Marcher lords against Edward in the Despenser War. Marlowe compresses the events of Edward II's twenty-year reign into one play, bringing drama to the historical narrative.

Source Material

Marlowe used Raphael Holinshed’s Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland as source material while writing Edward II. Holinshed's narrative of the reign of Edward II is non-chronological, with a number of events appearing disjointed in place and time. Marlowe reconstructs the story out of this jumble and creates a streamlined narrative that focuses on a few key events and relationships that led to Edward II's downfall. Modern scholars, in comparing Marlowe's text to Holinshed's and to other historical accounts of the time, have for the most part authenticated Marlowe's narrative, affirming that these are generally accurate (if dramatized) representations of events that took place during Edward II's reign.

Machiavelli and Edward II

Many scholars have noted the importance of Machiavelli's political treatise The Prince in discussing Edward II. Though Machiavelli himself would say that The Prince merely provides instructions and guidelines on how to be an effective leader, most readers agree that the methods Machiavelli advocates are brutal, manipulative, and, in certain lights, evil. The word "Machiavellian" has become synonymous with devious, self-serving behavior, in large part because Machiavelli encouraged princes to use force whenever necessary to achieve their goals. In Machiavelli's mind, a prince should be a cunning mastermind capable of outmaneuvering his enemies both in battle and in politics. Edward II does neither. Edward breaks what Machiavelli would consider the cardinal rule: he lets his whims and passions get in the way of governing. Edward's gallivanting and inattention allow the ambitious Mortimer, Earl of March, to plot against him. Ultimately, it is Mortimer, a traitor to the crown, who displays the characteristics Machiavelli praised in The Prince. Mortimer uses his wealth, connections, and influence to manipulate events in Edward II , eventually placing himself in a position of power from which he has King Edward tortured and killed. In the process, however, he reveals himself to be a fatally ambitious man and makes enemies of his friends—including Queen Isabella, whom he professes to love. Mortimer leads the Marcher Lords against Edward II, deposing the king and making himself the de facto ruler of England while Edward III comes of age. Mortimer...

(This entire section contains 790 words.)

Unlock this Study Guide Now

Start your 48-hour free trial and get ahead in class. Boost your grades with access to expert answers and top-tier study guides. Thousands of students are already mastering their assignments—don't miss out. Cancel anytime.

Get 48 Hours Free Access

Already a member? Log in here.

misuses his power by betraying Edward III's wishes and executing Kent, who could have become a powerful ally for the young king.

Depiction of Homosexuality

Edward II is notable for its nonchalant depiction of homosexuality. In 1593, when the play was first published, homosexuality was essentially illegal in England, thanks to Henry VIII's Buggery Act of 1533, which criminalized anal sex. However, in the early 1300s, when the play is set, homosexuality was understood to be fairly common, though it was officially frowned upon by the establishment and remained a punishable offense. In fact, the English noblemen take the fact of Edward's affair with Gaveston more or less in stride, and Mortimer the elder blithely says, "The mightiest kings have had their minions,” as if it is nothing to fret about. If it weren't for the inordinate amount of kingly favor Edward shows his lover by gifting him lands, titles, and wealth, the noblemen wouldn't care in the least about the relationship or Edward's homosexuality (or so Marlowe suggests). This alone distinguishes Edward II from other plays of the period, in which homosexuality is generally treated as the butt of a joke or (worse) a sin.

Literary Style

PDF Cite

Blank Verse

Blank verse, composed of unrhymed lines with a consistent rhythm, was not invented by Christopher Marlowe, but he is acknowledged for popularizing its use in English drama. This rhythm typically appears as iambic pentameter, consisting of ten syllables with the stress on every other syllable. Marlowe's blank verse showcases how the meter can be adjusted, using slight changes in stress or the placement of pauses (caesura) to keep the natural flow of speech while preserving the formal structure of poetry. Because of its remarkable flexibility, blank verse is an ideal medium for expressing natural sentences: "Here, take my crown, the life of Edward too, / Two kings in England cannot reign at once." Although the rhythm balances these lines, they also capture the spontaneity of unplanned speech. In Shakespeare's hands, this form became even more adaptable: "For God's sake, let us sit upon the ground / And tell sad stories of the deaths of kings . . ." (Richard II). Marlowe liberated dramatic lyrics from the limitations of rhyming lines, paving the way for further lyrical innovations. By taking more liberties with the stresses while adhering to the overall rhythm of iambic pentameter, Shakespeare created his psychologically realistic plays, allowing his characters to express themselves in an even more lifelike manner than Marlowe achieved.

Imagery

The imagery within a play's language often hints at or subtly foreshadows its overarching themes. Whether presented through dialogue or as physical items on stage, imagery can remind the audience of the settings and objects that signify a person's status. Throughout Edward II, symbols of status such as the crown, battle flags, ceremonial robes, jewelry, and hats frequently appear. These items often have their intended purposes distorted by the king's obsession with amusement and self-indulgence. For instance, when the Bishop of Coventry angers Edward by signing the order to banish Gaveston from court, Edward retaliates by stripping the Bishop of his vestments. These priestly garments hold significant symbolic value, and to desecrate them is a sacrilegious act. To the Bishop of Canterbury and Elizabethan audiences, this act represents violence against the Church itself. This scene is mirrored at the play's conclusion when Edward, now the victim, is left in rags in a dungeon, stripped of his crown. He tells Lightborn to inform Isabella that he "looked not thus" when he "ran at tilt in France / And there unhorsed the Duke of Cleremont." His appearance is essential to his status. Tournaments were popular Renaissance events where participants donned their finest attire to engage in mock battles. Renaissance audiences were acutely aware of the distinction between real and mock battles, both requiring elaborate dress. Edward's willingness to "undress" a priest reveals his dangerous irreverence and his excessive preoccupation with pageantry. His nobles criticize him for only participating in one battle, the Battle of Bannockburn, where he dressed so ostentatiously that he became a laughingstock—and significantly, he lost the battle. His focus on appearances over substance led to his downfall. In another instance, Edward asks the nobles about the "device" or design on their battle flags. Each noble describes a scene that symbolizes a threat to the king, with one device bearing the Latin phrase Undique mors est, meaning "surrounded by death." Thus, Edward is encircled by subtle visual cues that symbolize the peril of his own obsession with image.

Setting

PDF Cite

London

As the epicenter of English political power, London serves as a crucial backdrop in the narrative of King Edward II. Among its notable sites, the royal palace stands out, hosting pivotal events that shape the course of the kingdom. Legal authority emanates from the new temple, while the Tower of London looms as a foreboding symbol, traditionally housing political prisoners of significance. The play commences on a bustling street in London, setting the tone for the unfolding drama, and concludes within the confines of the royal palace, encapsulating the turbulent journey of power and betrayal.

Paris

Across the Channel, Paris, the illustrious capital of the French monarchy, plays a critical role in the unfolding saga. Here resides Queen Isabella, Edward II's wife and sister to the French king. Within this city of grandeur and intrigue, Isabella forges a clandestine alliance with Kent and the younger Mortimer. Together, they conspire to return to England, unleashing a campaign of war against Edward, thus intertwining the fates of England and France in a web of familial and political conflict.

Neath Abbey

Neath Abbey in Glamorganshire, Wales, emerges as a poignant location where King Edward's fortunes take a dire turn. Attempting to flee to Ireland, Edward is captured by his adversaries in this historic church. Wales holds significant personal history for Edward, as he was born in Carnarvon Castle and became the inaugural Prince of Wales, a title fraught with both regal promise and eventual downfall.

Berkeley Castle

The grim walls of Berkeley Castle in Gloucestershire bear witness to the tragic denouement of Edward’s life. It is here that he is ultimately imprisoned and meets his untimely end. This castle, steeped in history and shadowed by treachery, stands as a testament to the brutal reality of political machinations and the fleeting nature of power.

Historical Context

PDF Cite

The Reigns of Edward I & II

Edward I (1239-1307) was a capable ruler, although he placed heavy demands on Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. He initiated the creation of an administration capable of levying taxes through a body known as the Commons, which complemented the Great Council (the king's advisors). The Commons was made up of locally elected representatives who were more likely to collect essential taxes for the king if they had allegiances both to the monarchy and their local communities. It would take another 500 years for this body to evolve into the democratic institution it is today. Additionally, the Commons acted as a conduit for petitions requesting national laws, which resulted in a growing body of legislation that gradually diminished the power of the baronry and other local landowners, laying the groundwork for nationalism. The final blow to the nobility came with legislation that prohibited anyone other than the king from conscripting armed forces.

Edward II, on the other hand, was reportedly as indulgent as depicted in Marlowe's play. He lost the confidence of the nobility and was imprisoned, likely murdered by them. His reign saw the loss of Normandy to France and a crushing defeat at Bannockburn, which paved the way for Scottish independence. Edward II's deposition by his wife and her lover, Roger Mortimer, marked the first removal of a king since William the Conqueror's reign in 1066 and aligned with the gradual move towards democracy initiated by Edward I. The monarchy was no longer considered untouchable; a precedent was set for evaluating a king's moral fitness and taking action against a ruler deemed unworthy.

Scottish War of Independence—Bannockburn, 1314

In Marlowe's play, Bannockburn is only mentioned in Act II, scene ii, when Lancaster taunts King Edward with a mocking song about his defeat there in 1314. Historically, this loss was catastrophic for England as it ultimately led to the end of its rule over Scotland fourteen years later. Edward should not have lost the battle. He arrived with 16,000 troops and a twenty-mile supply line, whereas Robert the Bruce commanded just 6,500 resourceful but desperate men. Despite having superior numbers and weaponry, Edward lacked the determination of Robert the Bruce, who remains a national hero in Scotland. The immediate goal of the battle was to relieve the English-held Stirling Castle, which was under siege by the Scots. English governor Philip Mowbray was on the verge of surrendering when Edward arrived. However, Edward made several strategic errors, leading his forces into a boggy area that was hard to navigate. A small group of Scots then managed to drive the English into a nearby river, where they were slaughtered. In a frantic retreat, many English soldiers were shot by their own archers, who could not distinguish friend from foe. Edward, along with 500 men, fled to Stirling Castle, only to be turned away by Mowbray, who anticipated Robert's victory. Edward then retreated elsewhere and eventually returned home, leaving behind numerous dead, prisoners, hostages, and a fortune in military equipment. This battle was an immense victory for the Scots and a severe blow to Edward's military reputation.

Compare and Contrast

PDF Cite

14th century: Homosexuality was relatively prevalent among the upper classes and courtiers. Despite this, sodomy was officially deemed anti-Christian and was punishable by law.

16th century: During Elizabethan times, homosexuality was not openly accepted, although it was common in universities and other places. The numerous derogatory terms—sodomite, buggerer, and others—highlight the negative stigma surrounding homosexual activity in many societal circles. As in the 14th century, sodomy was punishable by fines, arrest, and public humiliation in the pillory. The act was often perceived as a corrupting influence from abroad, particularly from Turkey and Italy.

Today: Modern culture tends to be more tolerant. Although a few states still have laws against sodomy, these laws are rarely enforced but remain points of legal and moral contention. Advocates for progress argue that these outdated laws should be abolished and that existing laws and rights should be expanded to explicitly protect homosexuals. On the other hand, some conservative individuals assert that such laws represent a necessary moral corrective for what they see as a decline in societal discipline and values.

14th century: The King was regarded with god-like reverence, believed to be endowed with power by divine will. Questioning the King openly was unthinkable, as it risked accusations of treason, punishable by death. It was even illegal to speculate about the King's mortality.

16th century: Queen Elizabeth I ruled under similar principles, dealing with treasonous activities by imprisoning or executing those involved.

Today: In modern democracies like the United States, leaders are no longer seen as divine figures. Criticizing the president's work is entirely legitimate, though personal criticisms are also common. Nevertheless, threats against a president or other world leaders are taken very seriously and are promptly investigated.

14th century: Kings were expected to be warriors, defending their realm with all available resources—men, money, and arms. Demonstrating power was essential to remain on the throne, as many nobles possessed the means to challenge the crown.

16th century: Queen Elizabeth I utilized all her diplomatic skills to maintain her authority in a male-dominated world. She cultivated a quasi-religious cult of personality to make her reign appear inviolable. As a master strategist, she also secured the loyalty of powerful men, ensuring their armed support against threats like the Spanish Armada.

Today: Modern leaders are not typically expected to engage in warfare personally; the prevailing belief is that they should use diplomacy and other peaceful methods to avert conflicts. However, taking military action is still often seen as a demonstration of strong leadership.

Media Adaptations

PDF Cite

In 1991, British director Derek Jarman created a film titled Edward II in the United Kingdom, which is available on VHS. Jarman utilizes Marlowe's text as a foundation for a gay liberation manifesto, amplifying the homosexual aspects of the king's romantic relationship and situating it within a contemporary setting. The screenplay, along with photographs from the film, was published by Jarman and Malcolm Sutherland in 1991 through Trinity Press, Worcester, under the title Queer Edward II.

Bibliography and Further Reading

PDF Cite