Robert Louis Stevenson said that the plot of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (first published without “The” as the first word in the title) first came to him in a nightmare and that, after waking up, he wrote the first draft in three days. Stevenson introduces the mystery of the evil Mr. Edward Hyde—the central puzzle of the story—early in the novel, but he does not provide a solution to the mystery until the very end. The reader’s first encounter with Hyde is at second hand, in a story told to Gabriel John Utterson, a lawyer friend of Dr. Henry Jekyll, by Richard Enfield, who saw Hyde trample a child. Because Jekyll recently has changed his will to leave all of his money to Hyde, Utterson is intrigued and begins to investigate. He fears that Hyde is blackmailing Jekyll and plans to murder him.

When Sir Danvers Carew, a respected member of Parliament, is murdered and Hyde is implicated by a witness, a manhunt begins, but Hyde cannot be found. Utterson begins to suspect that more than a murder is involved when he discovers that the handwriting of Jekyll is identical to that of Hyde, except for the slant of the letters. His suspicions deepen when he learns that Dr. Hastie Lanyon has developed hard feelings toward his old friend, Henry Jekyll. Although Lanyon is dying, he refuses to see Jekyll again.

The mystery that surrounds the relationship between Jekyll and Hyde is revealed gradually by means of a letter from Lanyon that is to be read by Utterson after Lanyon has died; however, Lanyon’s letter contains another letter that is not to be opened until the death or disappearance of Jekyll. When Poole, Jekyll’s butler, tells Utterson that Jekyll has disappeared and that Hyde is locked in Jekyll’s laboratory, Utterson and Poole break down the door. They find only the body of Hyde and a note from Jekyll requesting that Utterson read Lanyon’s letter.

The letter recounts a request by Jekyll to bring some chemicals to him. Hyde appears in Jekyll’s laboratory, and Lanyon sees Hyde swallow the chemicals and become transformed into Jekyll. The shock of witnessing the transformation apparently hastened Lanyon’s death. When Utterson opens the accompanying letter, from Jekyll, he discovers that Jekyll has been obsessed with a theory of the duality of good and evil in all human beings and that he has discovered a formula that transforms him into his evil side. When he begins to change into Hyde without the chemicals, however, Jekyll despairs, for after he exhausts his supply of chemicals he can no longer transform himself back. As he completes the letter, he changes back to Hyde the last time and kills himself.

The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is a disquieting story about the efforts of an individual to escape his own nature. The novel offers an account of Dr. Henry Jekyll, a Scottish scientist who, after years of attempting to accommodate both his moral side and his pleasure-seeking side, becomes convinced that a separation of the two would be desirable.

In his laboratory, Jekyll develops a chemical potion that is designed to accomplish the separation and drinks it. After a “grinding of the bones” and a horrible nausea, he begins to feel “incredibly sweet” and free. Looking in the mirror, Jekyll observes not himself but Edward Hyde, a smaller and younger person than himself. Jekyll delights in the division of himself and in his new liberty, but he soon begins to lose control of Hyde, who can assume Jekyll’s form at will. The novel follows Dr. Jekyll’s struggle with Mr. Hyde, who becomes increasingly evil and whom Jekyll refuses to acknowledge as a part of himself.

The enormous popularity of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde has aided the perpetuation of a persistent view that it is a simple fable of the division between the good and evil that exists in everyone. The complexity of Robert Louis Stevenson’s imaginative story of an individual’s conflict with himself, however, is evident in its multiple narratives. Through the presentation of various points of view, Stevenson escalates knowledge of events from the peripheral to the more intimate and at the same time deepens the insight into the psychology of Jekyll.

The first narrative, Richard Enfield’s horrified reaction to Edward Hyde’s trampling of a little girl, provides the first evidence of the existence of Henry Jekyll and Edward Hyde. Enfield, a “well-known man about town,” finds Hyde unaccountably detestable. He also relates the reactions of others present: the women, whom the sight of Hyde makes “wild as harpies,” and a doctor, who like Enfield is sickened by Hyde and wants to kill him. Enfield confides his narrative to his cousin, Gabriel John Utterson, an attorney who is a friend of Jekyll and who practices self-denial in order to strengthen his own moral fiber. Utterson, through whose perspective the story is told, listens to accounts of Jekyll and Hyde told by other characters and sometimes observes Jekyll and Hyde directly. A tolerant person, he believes that Jekyll has perhaps been guilty of some foible in his youth and is being blackmailed by Hyde. Upon meeting Hyde, he too feels disgust and nausea.

The third narrator is Dr. Hastie Lanyon, who has written a letter to Utterson. A bold Scottish doctor, Lanyon has become estranged from Jekyll because of Jekyll’s “fanciful” theories. Dr. Lanyon is the first to ascertain that Jekyll is Hyde and that Jekyll is in Hyde’s control. His observation of Jekyll’s transformation into Hyde literally shocks Lanyon to death.

Jekyll’s narrative, a letter read after his death, is the one for which all others have been preparation. The most subjective account, the letter reveals his concerns that led to his experiments and the conclusions that he reached about them. Of great interest is his personal reaction to Hyde.

*London

*London. Great Britain’s capital and leading city is the general setting for the novella. The story depends for its effect on a suitably gothic atmosphere, and its portrayal of London is one of the great triumphs of the work. However, in the view of many scholars, Stevenson’s London is based more on his native Edinburgh, Scotland, than on the actual London of his time.

The story’s London is full of ominously empty streets and glaring lamps; it is silvered by ghostly moonlight or drowned in impenetrable fog. Its streets echo with sinister footsteps, and it is a place of questionable neighborhoods, strange houses, and dubious doors. Fog penetrates the very interiors of houses; biting winds whip sparse trees against railings, and even in the daylight, fog and mist can create ghostly and frightening phantasmagorias. In this story, London is mostly a city of the night, a place in whose darkness or under whose lurid lamps a child can be trampled or a dignified old man be murdered. Stevenson creates the overwhelming sense that just beyond the warm hearths and respectable characters’ sitting rooms there lurks a dark and dangerous place.

Jekyll’s house

Jekyll’s house. London residence of Dr. Henry Jekyll. Like Jekyll himself, his house is possessed of a dual and bifurcated nature. Indeed, almost every detail of the house reflects symbolically his character and situation. Jekyll’s “official” house has a respectable and handsome facade, a door that is opened by an old and decent servant, and an interior that is expressive of wealth, comfort, and security. This house, or the public part of his house, is a perfect expression of the front that the eminently respectable Dr. Jekyll presents to the world.

In his investigations, the lawyer Gabriel John Utterson learns that what he has taken to be Jekyll’s house is actually only one part of a larger residence. The respectable house that Utterson first knows is connected through a back door and a small yard to a mysterious and sinister part of the house that is at once attached to, and separate from, its imposing opposite side. Every aspect of this dark side of the residence reveals something about Jekyll’s own other side. It is a dingy, secretive, disorderly place that contains a laboratory (once a dissecting room) and a kind of inner sanctum which is referred to as the “doctor’s cabinet.”

It is also worth noting that the small yard that connects the two sides of Jekyll’s residence was once a garden but is so no longer. Finally, the dark side of Jekyll’s house has its own front side and door that seem at first unconnected to the other side of the house; they are blank, ugly, sordid, and ominous. It is through the entrance on this side of the house that Mr. Hyde comes and goes. In coming to understand the strange two-sidedness of Dr. Jekyll’s house, Utterson approaches and foreshadows an understanding of Jekyll himself.

Utterson’s house

Utterson’s house. London home of Utterson, Jekyll’s lawyer. This house is comfortable, safe, respectable, and sterile. It is a place from which everything unconventional, imaginative, or odd has been expelled. It reflects Utterson’s dry bachelor ways and his masculine professionalism. Utterson’s house is the embodiment of Victorian respectability that Jekyll worships in his Jekyll form but rebels against in his Hyde form.

Lanyon’s house

Lanyon’s house. Home of Dr. Hastie Lanyon, Jekyll’s friend and medical colleague, in London’s Cavendish Square. This fashionable house reflects Lanyon’s stature as a physician and his general success. In this comfortable and hospitable home, Lanyon sees to his growing medical practice and entertains his friends. Like Utterson’s house and one side of Jekyll’s home, Lanyon’s residence is a symbol of a repressive but brittle respectability. When Lanyon witnesses Hyde’s transformation back to Jekyll within his own home, the sight utterly destroys all that he and his house represent.

Hyde’s house

Hyde’s house. Squalid residence of Mr. Hyde in London’s dismal Soho district. When Utterson finds the house, he experiences it and its neighborhood as a kind of dingy nightmare. The house is a dark and wicked place, but it reveals a few hints of Hyde’s connection to Jekyll.

Benthamism
Benthamism, also referred to as utilitarianism, emerged as a significant ideology in Victorian society. This term is linked to the philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, articulated in his Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. It was embraced by a substantial segment of the Victorian middle class, influencing their customs and beliefs. By the 1820s, Benthamism had garnered a number of adherents who championed his theories in intellectual discussions. Its proponents gained political influence in the 1830s when around one hundred followers were elected to the first reformed Parliament in England.

Central to this philosophy was the principle of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number," a phrase borrowed from Joseph Priestley, an eighteenth-century Unitarian theologian. This belief was based on the idea that self-interest should be the primary focus and that happiness could be achieved by avoiding pain and seeking pleasure. In Victorian People and Ideas, Richard D. Altick explains that "utilitarianism was ... wholly hedonistic; it made no allowance for the promptings of conscience, or for ... the forces of generosity, mercy, compassion, self-sacrifice, love. Benthamite ethics had nothing to do with Christian morality."

Evangelicalism
Another equally significant movement during the Victorian era was Evangelicalism, a form of Protestant pietism. Evangelicalism emphasized less on doctrine and more on the daily lives and ultimate salvation of its followers. It established strict behavioral guidelines for its adherents to follow to achieve atonement for their sins. Altick notes that "the Evangelical's anxious eye was forever fixed upon the 'eternal microscope' which searched for every moral blemish and reported every motion of the soul." This religion is also recognized for inspiring humanitarian efforts during the Victorian age.

London at the End of the Nineteenth Century
Michael Sadler depicts London in the latter part of the nineteenth century in his Forlorn Sunset (1947):

London in the early sixties was still largely untamed. Aside from the residential and shopping areas, few districts were truly "public" in the sense that ordinary people frequented them. There was no telling what peculiar area you might encounter, what dead-end you might stumble upon, or what embarrassment, insult, or even danger you might face. Consequently, the conventional middle class stuck to the main thoroughfares, aware that just behind the facades on either side lived a million hidden lives, but uninterested in their nature, and scarcely acknowledging that those residents were also Londoners.

Irving S. Saposnik, in his article on Stevenson, observes that during this era, London was:

much like its residents, a microcosm of the unavoidable fragmentation that Victorian individuals found inescapable. It represented that division-within-essential-unity which is the very essence of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. As both a geographic and symbolic center, London epitomized what Stevenson called it in New Arabian Nights, "the great battlefield of mankind."

Reverend William Tuckniss describes London at the close of the nineteenth century as a place where:

The seeds of both good and evil reach their fullest maturity, and virtue and vice develop most quickly under the abundant influences present everywhere. London, therefore, can be seen as the primary hub of these activities, simultaneously serving as the marketplace of crime and the stronghold of Christianity. Indeed, it is the major battlefield where the forces of darkness and the agents of heaven clash. Here, they engage in close combat, striving for dominance.

The narrative takes place in the 1870s in London, England. The city, its architecture, and its inhabitants—whether they are servants, laborers, or the educated elite—are all depicted with historical accuracy. Readers get the impression that the author might have roamed similar streets, bustling with foot traffic at all hours as people of various social standings go about their daily activities and leisure. He may have explored homes and buildings like those described, some reflecting progress and social advancement, while others exhibit neglect and decay.

The sole fantastical element in the story lies in Dr. Jekyll's experiments with mineral salts. This, too, aligns with historical context, as the field of pharmacology was expanding during that era. Although a doctor's bag in the 1880s primarily contained substances like alcohol, iodine, and opium, there was ongoing research into the effectiveness of other medicinal compounds. Private researchers, for instance, introduced ether into medical use, even though it was not always managed with the necessary caution.

Point of View

Stevenson frequently shifts the point of view in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, creating suspense and emphasizing the novel's focus on duality. The story begins by centering on John Gabriel Utterson, Dr. Jekyll's friend and lawyer, as he gradually uncovers the horror at the story's core. The narrative then transitions to Utterson's friend and relative, Richard Enfield, who first informs Utterson about Edward Hyde. Enfield articulates the challenge faced by those who encounter Hyde and struggle to describe him, saying, "I never saw a man I so disliked, and yet I scarce know why ... He gives a strong feeling of deformity, although I couldn't specify the point ... I can't describe him." Others who see Hyde experience a "haunting sense of unexpressed deformity." The characters' inability to clearly perceive Hyde mirrors his true nature. Hyde embodies Jekyll's dark side, a fundamental part of his soul that he had suppressed for years. Jekyll himself acknowledges this when he asserts, "This too was myself." However, readers do not fully comprehend Hyde or Jekyll until the novel's conclusion, when Jekyll confesses.

Narrative

Stewart F. Sanderson, in his analysis of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, remarks on the narrative's construction: "The pace of the narration, the deft way in which details supporting both the action and its unraveling are interwoven throughout the narrative, and the economy with which the story's terrifying atmosphere is created, combine to form a work of extraordinary psychological depth and powerful impact."

Irving S. Saposnik, in his book on Stevenson, also commends the novel's narrative structure:

The three distinct narrative voices—Enfield, Lanyon, and Jekyll—are arranged in successive order to add increasing rhetorical and psychological dimensions to the events they recount. Unlike other multiple narratives that often raise questions of subjective truth and moral ambiguity, these individual narratives in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde offer a linear progression of information—a cumulative account of attitudes toward Hyde's repulsiveness and Jekyll's deterioration.

Style

The novel's style has garnered much praise from critics. Stephen Gwynn, in his book on Stevenson, asserts that the novel is "a fable that lies nearer to poetry than to ordinary prose fiction." In his lecture on The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Vladimir Nabokov notes, "Stevenson had to rely on style very much in order to perform the trick, in order to master the two main difficulties confronting him: (1) to make the magic potion a plausible drug based on a chemist's ingredients and (2) to make Jekyll's evil side before and after the 'hydization' a believable evil." Nabokov believes that Stevenson achieves these objectives through his use of setting and symbolism in the novel.

Setting

Stevenson offers setting details that gain symbolic importance throughout the novel. His depiction of London helps establish a mood of suspense and hints at a looming sense of evil. In the morning fog, London transforms into

dark like the light of some strange conflagration; and here, for a moment, the fog would be quite broken up, and a haggard shaft of daylight would glance in between the swirling wreaths. The dismal quarter of Soho seen under these changing glimpses, with its muddy ways, and slatternly passengers, and its lamps, which had never been extinguished or had been kindled afresh to combat this mournful reinvasion of darkness, seemed ... like a district of some city in a nightmare.

Stevenson's portrayal of the Soho area where Hyde lives is particularly menacing. As Utterson and Enfield stroll through the city at the novel's outset, they find themselves in "a busy quarter" of London and pass a "certain sinister block of building" that "bore in every feature, the marks of prolonged and sordid negligence." The door to Hyde's residence, where the two men pause, is "blistered and distained. Tramps slouched into the recess ... The schoolboy had tried his knife on the mouldings; and for close on a generation, no one had appeared to drive away these random visitors or to repair their ravages."

Symbol

Stevenson employs additional symbolic elements in the story, including the names "Jekyll" and "Hyde," which have Scandinavian roots. Hyde derives from the Danish word hide, meaning "a haven," while Jekyll comes from the Danish name Jokulle, which translates to "an icicle." Nabokov argues, "Not knowing these simple derivations one would be apt to find all kinds of symbolic meanings, especially in Hyde, the most obvious being that Hyde is a kind of hiding place for Dr. Jekyll, in whom the jocular doctor and the killer are combined." Utterson's name aptly matches his stern nature and connects to one of the novel's themes—the repression of personality.

Nabokov identifies another significant symbol in the narrative. The reader ultimately discovers that Jekyll's dissecting room, modified for his experiments, has become Hyde's quarters and the site of the transformations. Nabokov notes, "The relations of [Jekyll and Hyde] are typified by Jekyll's house, which is half Jekyll and half Hyde."

Saposnik concludes,

the topography of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde may be seen as a study in symbolic location, a carefully worked out series of contrasts between exterior modes and interior realities. Like much of Victorian life and letters, most of the story's action is physically internalized behind four walls. Utterson's ruminations, Lanyon's seduction, and Jekyll-Hyde's death all occur within the protective confines of what Stevenson in an essay termed "The Ideal House."

This Victorian home shielded its residents from public scrutiny.

Saposnik observes that as the action becomes more internal, so does the psychological focus of the novel:

While the initial descriptions of the house focus on its exterior, the narrative quickly moves inside, first to the hall, then to the study, and ultimately to the sinister experiments hidden behind the closed door of the old dissection lab. When Poole and Utterson break through the final barrier to Jekyll's secret, they both figuratively and literally dismantle his last sanctuary. By invading his physical space, they compel him into a psychological confession that leads inevitably to his demise.

The narrative unfolds through multiple viewpoints. It begins with a third-person perspective, primarily centered on Mr. Utterson's observations. Several crucial letters play a role in uncovering the dreadful truth about Mr. Hyde, with one particularly significant letter from Dr. Lanyon. The final thirty pages are dedicated to Jekyll's "Full Statement of the Case." Through this method, the author skillfully keeps the dual identity hidden from the reader until the story's climax.

Another key element of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is its style. While Stevenson is celebrated for his elegant writing across his works, it stands out in this story, especially in descriptive passages. For example, an early depiction of Hyde reads: "Mr. Hyde was pale and dwarfish, he gave the impression of deformity without any nameable malformation, he had a displeasing smile, he had borne himself to the lawyer with a sort of murderous mixture of timidity and boldness, and he spoke with a husky, whispering, and somewhat broken voice." The style is crucial in creating the cold, damp London nights and the overall atmosphere of gloom and evil. Setting the appropriate tone is vital for a narrative like this; it must maintain a sense of realism to balance the fictional elements of the plot.

Given the multitude of parallel narratives across various mediums such as print, cinema, television, and stage, it might be intriguing to compare some of these portrayals of dual identity with Stevenson's work.

1. Is there any rationale at all for Jekyll engaging in the audacious experiment?

2. Several notable readers, including Henry James, found the use of drugs perplexing and somewhat difficult to believe. Does this aspect of the plot seem implausible? Could Stevenson have employed a different method to address the transformation?

3. Although Hyde commits only one murder, does the author effectively convey a sense of overwhelming evil in this character?

4. Did knowing the basic outline of the plot before reading the text diminish the impact of the climax for you in any way?

5. Aside from the transformation itself, which is clearly in the realm of science fiction, is there any other element of the narrative that stretches believability? For instance, are the behaviors of all the characters plausible?

6. Is the tone of the story consistently maintained throughout the text? Could more have been done to heighten it?

This reading exercise is ideal for students who can read at a fifth-grade level or higher. Like many older works, it is more comprehensible when read aloud. With a standard dictionary on hand, any middle-school or junior high student can navigate the formal and stiff prose. The text contains phrases that are now seen as literary clichés, such as "his blood ran cold in his veins" and "with a heavy heart." These expressions highlight the time gap between the creation of topical, popular fiction with a contemporary setting and the present day, where this novel appears antique.

It is known that Stevenson read works by Dostoevsky and Edgar Allan Poe, and their influence on Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is evident, particularly Poe's story, "The Imp of the Perverse." It might have been more beneficial for Stevenson to draw more from the works of Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens), as the humor in Stevenson's novels is sparse and underdeveloped. The confined world of the Presbyterian city-dweller depicted in his work contains as much horror as the 1999 film The Matrix, but lacks the self-deprecating humor.

This short novel seems to be heavily influenced by the first modern horror novel, written by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley in 1818. While it is impossible to know every book Stevenson read during his brief life, it is likely that the horror story of a scientist creating a human monster inspired Stevenson's tale of a scientist who turns himself into a human monster. From his childhood, Stevenson learned from his nanny that torment is the price of sin and that regret alone is insufficient to redeem a sinner, a lesson he never forgot.

For a contemporary reader, well-acquainted with the Jekyll/Hyde dual identity, it's challenging to grasp the shock experienced by those in Stevenson's era. These readers, unaware of the phenomenon, believed until nearly the end of the story that two distinct individuals were involved. The social standing of the main characters holds importance. They are all "gentlemen," with the sole exception being Jekyll's servant, Poole. This distinction allows Hyde, who dresses like an upper-class individual and possesses sufficient funds, to act freely and independently in his malicious deeds.

The refinement of Mr. Utterson, Dr. Lanyon, Mr. Enfield, and Dr. Jekyll himself establishes the novella's tone: society expects the highest moral conduct from individuals of this class. Consequently, the disgrace that Jekyll strives to avoid becomes even more catastrophic, ultimately driving him to suicide at the story's conclusion. Furthermore, the social class of the main characters highlights Hyde's degradation when he ventures into lower-class areas to carry out his heinous acts.

This novel offers a refreshing change for those used to stories featuring self-indulgent and licentious characters. It is currently unfashionable for authors to write from the perspective of characters who value self-restraint and courtesy over personal ambition. Readers unfamiliar with the works of Dickens or Tolstoy may find this short novel a good introduction to classic literature.

Although the story centers on an educated, upper-class snob who discovers to his horror that he has shameful, base impulses like anyone else, the author rises above his own elitist culture. There is no suggestion that the child trampled by Hyde, or the witness to Hyde's murder, are anything less than our fellow humans, deserving respect despite being female, lower-class, and poor.

Mr. Hyde's physical appearance resembles the racist depictions of stereotypical "Irish" individuals in newspapers and political tracts of the late 1800s, as well as non-British Caucasians. In this aspect, the author does not surpass his own elitist upbringing. Mr. Hyde is meant to embody the "base drives" from which Dr. Jekyll wishes to free himself, and thus he has the physical traits that racists derided in the so-called "lower orders." Social Darwinists viewed the Irish and non-British Caucasians as less evolved than the British and Northern Europeans. (Fortunately for fiction readers, this particular form of racism has become less common in English-language literature since World War II.)

It is also notable that the story lacks a single person of color, foreign-born character, or native speaker of a language other than English. This is just barely plausible for a story set in London in the 1870s. At the very least, one of Jekyll's friends could have been born and raised in India under the British Raj. Though Stevenson describes a very circumscribed society, men of wealth and power walked the same grimy streets at the same time of day as the workers and prostitutes of London.

During his 1879 trip to America, Stevenson traveled in a second-class cabin and made several visits to the steerage, where he was both appalled and fascinated by the passengers and their conditions. He meticulously recorded his observations in a journal that later became the basis for a non-fiction book. Stevenson integrated his observations and insights into much of his writing, though few autobiographical elements appeared in his fiction.

1886: Following the Anglo-Burmese war, Britain annexes Upper Burma. However, revolutionary groups will continue to attempt to reclaim control for several years.

Today: The British Empire now holds sway over only a few remaining colonies, protectorates, or trust territories.

1886: Karl Marx's Das Kapital is published in English.

1887: "Bloody Sunday," a Socialist demonstration, breaks out in Trafalgar Square.

1926: Joseph Stalin becomes the dictator of the Soviet Union, initiating a reign of terror that will last twenty-seven years.

1991: On December 17, President Mikhail Gorbachev orders the dissolution of the Soviet Union, leading to the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States by the former USSR countries.

1882: The Married Woman's Property Act is enacted in England, providing women with several significant rights.

Today: Women are assured equal rights under the law.

1901: Queen Victoria passes away, marking the end of the Victorian Age. She is succeeded by Edward VII, heralding the start of the Edwardian Age.

Today: The British monarchy has been marred by numerous scandals, including the reported infidelities of Prince Charles and Lady Diana, their subsequent divorce, and her tragic death.

Arguably, the most significant influence was Edgar Allan Poe, whose story "William Wilson" explores the theme of dual identity. Nonetheless, the immediate inspiration for Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, as Stevenson recounted, came from a dream in which the basic plot took shape. This kind of dark narrative is also evident in his outstanding short stories "Markheim," which features a protagonist with an alter ego, and "Thrawn Janet," a story about demonic possession.

Additionally, the Faust legend, which Stevenson was familiar with, may have also had some impact. Furthermore, the folk tales and eerie myths narrated to a young Stevenson by Alison Cunningham, aimed at entertaining the ailing child, significantly influenced the formation of such themes in the author's subconscious. These elements later emerged in his impressive literary works.

At least ten film adaptations of the novel exist, with no fewer than four versions available for rental or purchase in stores and libraries. The most critically acclaimed adaptation is the 1931 Paramount version directed by Rouben Mamoulian. However, the 1920 version starring Lon Chaney is notable for its extraordinary transformation scenes achieved without the use of heavy makeup or special effects.

Since Stevenson's copyright lapsed, numerous variations of the story have been created, including short stories, novels, made-for-television movies, feature films, and TV show episodes. Cataloging all these adaptations is impossible. Generally, these works are considered successful only to the extent that they are derivative.

This novella has inspired more adaptations than any other work by Stevenson, or nearly anyone else. The semi-Faustian nature of the story has "charmed" numerous producers. A musical adaptation, staged in 1995, even found moderate success. An early stage version written by T. R. Sullivan served as the foundation for several film adaptations. The first of these was the 1908 Vitagraph silent film, directed and written by Sidney Olcott. Four years later, Independent produced another silent version with James Cruze both directing and starring in the lead role.

One of the most acclaimed silent interpretations was the 1920 film featuring John Barrymore, directed by John S. Robertson and produced by Famous Players-Lasky. Twelve years later, Paramount released what many critics consider the finest adaptation, earning Fredric March an Oscar for his leading role. This version also starred Miriam Hopkins and Rose Hobart, who added a more sensual dimension to the film. Rouben Mamoulian directed and produced this Paramount version.

In 1941, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released another highly praised adaptation, directed by Victor Fleming and starring Spencer Tracy, Ingrid Bergman, and Lana Turner. A British adaptation titled The Two Faces of Dr. Jekyll (also known as House of Fright) was produced by Hammer and directed by Terence Fisher in 1959. In 1972, a television film featured Jack Palance as Jekyll/Hyde, while Anthony Perkins took on the role in a 1989 film titled Edge of Sanity.

The 1996 film adaptation, titled Mary Reilly, placed a greater emphasis on a female character and starred Julia Roberts alongside John Malkovich.

• Numerous adaptations of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde have been made for film, television, and audio. Between 1908 and 1920, six silent films based on the novel were produced. The most notable among these is the 1920 version by Famous Players-Lasky Corporation, featuring John Barrymore and Nita Naldi. In 1932, Paramount Publix Corp. released a version starring Fredric March and Miriam Hopkins. The most renowned film adaptation is the 1941 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer production, starring Spencer Tracy and Ingrid Bergman. In 1959, Sterling Educational Films released an educational version.

• There have been four television adaptations: a 1968 version directed by Charles Jarrott with Jack Palance playing Jekyll/Hyde; a 1973 musical adaptation directed by David Winters and starring Kirk Douglas; a 1981 version by Alastar Reed featuring David Hemmings; and a version by Michael Lindsay-Hogg starring Anthony Andrews. Additionally, Hollywood produced an animated adaptation.

• Various audio versions have been released on cassette, both abridged and unabridged. Naxos Audio Books also produced a complete audio compact disc of the novel.

The Complete Short Stories of Robert Louis Stevenson, edited by Charles Nieder, was published in New York by Doubleday in 1969. This collection features Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde along with a comprehensive introduction by the editor.

Rouben Mamoulian's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, edited by Richard J. Anobile, was released by Avon in New York in 1975. This book reconstructs the 1931 Paramount film, presenting over 1,500 sequential frame blow-up photos paired with the full dialogue from the original soundtrack. It is a must-read for enthusiasts of film adaptations of classic literature, especially this story. The introduction is highly informative, and the editor clearly states that this film is the only adaptation worthy of being called a "classic film."

Stevenson, Robert Louis. Greenwich Unabridged Library Classics: Treasure Island, The Master of Ballantrae, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Kidnapped. Published by Chatham River Press in 1983, this edition includes illustrations and a foreword by Karen Burke.

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Stern, G. B., Robert Louis Stevenson, British Writers Vol. 5, British Council, 1982, pp. 383-98.

Tuckniss, Reverend William, Introduction to London Labour and the London Poor Volume IV, 1862.

For Further Study

Charyn, Jerome, "Afterword: Who Is Hyde," in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Bantam, 1981.
Charyn provides a psychological analysis of Jekyll/Hyde and concludes that the character remains ambiguous.

Daiches, David, Robert Louis Stevenson, 1947.
An early work on Stevenson. Daiches offers an in-depth examination of several of Stevenson's works, including The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, emphasizing the author's technique.