Chapter 50: A Parliament of Scientists

The rise of modern science required new forums for collaboration beyond individual discoveries. Scientific communities evolved into "parliaments" where scholars shared knowledge, often in increasingly specific, jargon-filled languages. A Franciscan monk, Marin Mersenne (1588–1648), was pivotal in this shift, creating an international network connecting thinkers like René Descartes, Galileo, and Blaise Pascal. His Paris monastery became a hub for scientific exchange.

Inspired by Mersenne, Henry Oldenburg (1617–1677) fostered a similar network in England. As Secretary of the Royal Society, he built global scientific correspondence, overcoming language barriers and political obstacles. In 1665, he launched Philosophical Transactions, the first scientific journal to disseminate new discoveries widely. This shift from isolated scholarship to collaborative inquiry marked a turning point, emphasizing incremental progress and public engagement. The Royal Society and its journal laid the foundation for modern scientific communication, promoting the collective pursuit of knowledge.

Chapter 51: From Experience to Experiment

The Royal Society's motto, Nullius in Verba ("Take nobody's word for it"), marked a shift from subjective experience to repeatable experiment. While earlier science sought meaning, the new focus was precision. Bishop Thomas Sprat emphasized plain, direct language over eloquence, valuing clarity like that of artisans and merchants. To qualify as an experiment, an experience had to be replicable and measurable.

Mathematics became the universal language of science, transcending vernacular barriers. The development of standardized units—like the meter—was crucial. Innovators such as Simon Stevin introduced the decimal system, simplifying calculations, while John Napier's decimal point further advanced precision. Instruments like the telescope, microscope, and vernier scale transformed observation into quantifiable data. This era established experimentation as the foundation of scientific inquiry, with measurement and repeatability key to validating discoveries.

Chapter 52: "God Said, Let Newton Be!"

Isaac Newton (1642–1727) became the first global hero of modern science, surpassing predecessors like Roger Bacon, whose experimental work was once equated with black magic. Unlike Galileo, Newton's discoveries aligned with the scientific currents of his time, earning him widespread acclaim. Knighted by Queen Anne of Great Britain in 1705, he symbolized the triumph of reason over superstition.

Newton's genius lay in reducing natural phenomena to mathematical laws. His experiments with light revealed that white light is a mix of colors, each with specific refrangibility. Rejecting speculative hypotheses, he focused on observable, repeatable data. His Principia Mathematica unified celestial and terrestrial mechanics under universal laws of motion and gravity.

Despite his rational achievements, Newton remained deeply religious and intrigued by mysticism, alchemy, and biblical prophecy. His scientific rigor coexisted with a profound sense of mystery, marking him as both a master of natural laws and a seeker of the divine.

Chapter 53: Priority Becomes the Prize

In early modern Europe, scientific discovery shifted from secretive knowledge to public acclaim, with prestige and recognition becoming the ultimate prizes. The printing press enabled rapid dissemination of ideas, allowing inventors to claim credit like never before. Institutions like the Royal Society emerged to promote knowledge, contrasting with universities focused on preserving tradition.

Isaac Newton embodied this new era, fiercely protecting his discoveries. His rivalry with Robert Hooke over gravity and with Leibniz over the invention of calculus exemplified the intense battles for recognition. Newton even manipulated the Royal Society to secure his legacy. Before this shift, knowledge was power only when kept secret; now, publishing was key to ownership. The race for priority extended beyond Newton's time, sparking disputes over discoveries like the smallpox vaccine and the nature of water. Ultimately, the desire for recognition fueled scientific progress—and fierce competition—well into the modern era.