Historical Context
Bohemians in Greenwich Village
Shortly after the turn of the 20th century, artists, writers, actors, and political thinkers from across the United States began gravitating toward Greenwich Village, located in the lower part of Manhattan, New York City. These Bohemians—individuals who embraced a nontraditional, carefree lifestyle and often opposed mainstream societal norms—were drawn by the area's affordable housing and New York's vibrant cultural offerings, including museums. Following the war, the Village saw an influx of writers and artists. Writers benefited from proximity to major American publishing companies, while artists found opportunities to showcase their work in various galleries, no matter how small or unknown. Greenwich Village was also home to avant-garde theater groups like the Provincetown Players, co-founded by writer Susan Glaspell in 1915. Unlike commercial theaters, these groups were artist-driven. Over its 14-year history, the Players staged about 90 plays by emerging playwrights such as Eugene O’Neill. Additionally, the Village gave rise to "little magazines" or journals that championed innovative ideas. One such publication, The Masses, was established in the Village in 1911 and focused on art, literature, and socialism, featuring contributions from America's most radical creatives. The area became a hub for intellectuals, including communists, socialists, and other revolutionary thinkers, defining Greenwich Village as an artsy and alternative enclave.
The Modern Art Scene
By the early 1920s, the American public was being introduced to groundbreaking art movements like cubism, which highlighted geometric shapes and patterns; dadaism, which rejected conventional norms; and surrealism, which sought to capture the unconscious and dreamlike state. The 1913 Armory Show in New York astonished audiences with Marcel Duchamp’s piece, Nude Descending a Staircase No. 2. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, along with other institutions that hosted annual exhibitions, was reluctant to feature these avant-garde styles. In response, several affluent art patrons founded the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) in 1929, a venue dedicated to showcasing contemporary art. MOMA's establishment signified that modern art had gained a level of respectability.
Some American artists opted to document the evolving landscape, particularly the impact of the industrial era on society. Many painters focused on urban and industrial scenes, highlighting elements such as factories, technology, workers, and tenements.
The Modern American Woman
Even before the 20th century, the ideals of "the cult of true womanhood" or "the cult of domesticity" had become deeply embedded in American gender norms. These ideals encouraged women to dedicate themselves to family life and domestic responsibilities. Women's identities outside the home were limited, often defined by their husbands' accomplishments and social standing. While not seen as inferior to men, women were considered to possess greater moral superiority.
By the 1920s, these ideas had fallen out of favor. During this decade, limitations on what women could and couldn't do were significantly relaxed. American women were voting for the first time and also began showing more independence in various ways, such as wearing shorter dresses, cutting their hair, using makeup, and smoking cigarettes. With their bold new looks and actions, these young flappers challenged the core of American tradition and morality. Increasingly, young women were inspired by freethinking artists like writer Dorothy Parker and dancer Isadora Duncan. They also spoke more openly about sex, echoing the theories of Sigmund Freud. Many women started seeking employment outside the home, granting them greater economic and social independence. However, married women did not enjoy these same freedoms, as they were still expected to fulfill their roles as homemakers, which continued to be the ideal of American womanhood.
Style and Technique
In "The Difference," Glasgow weaves a rich tapestry of narrative techniques and literary devices that illuminate the inner world...
(This entire section contains 679 words.)
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of its protagonist, Margaret. Through a third-person limited point of view, a melancholic mood, subtle satire, and potent symbolism, the story explores the complexities of personal sacrifice, the failure of ideals, and the inherent absurdities of human behavior. Each element contributes to a nuanced portrayal of Margaret's journey, inviting readers to engage deeply with her experiences and emotions.
Point of View: A Window into Margaret's Soul
The narrative is told through a third-person, limited perspective, allowing readers intimate access to Margaret's thoughts and perceptions. This technique ensures that all events are seen through Margaret’s eyes, providing a comprehensive understanding of her emotional and psychological landscape. The reader accompanies Margaret as she navigates her fears and ideals about love, re-evaluates her husband George's relationship with Rose, and finally makes the heart-wrenching decision to relinquish her husband. This immersion into Margaret's consciousness is pivotal, as it deepens the emotional resonance of the story and highlights her transformation as a character. By filtering the narrative through Margaret, Glasgow effectively communicates the intricacies of female consciousness and the personal challenges that arise from societal expectations and internal conflict.
Mood: A Melancholic and Dramatic Landscape
The mood of the story is intricately tied to the point of view, predominantly melancholic and at times overdramatic, echoing Margaret's inner turmoil. Through evocative language, such as phrases like "rain-soaked world" and "grave-like mounds of leaves," the narrative paints a vivid picture of the dreary and unfamiliar world Margaret inhabits. These descriptions not only set the scene but also magnify Margaret’s self-perceived role as a tragic heroine. She views her decision to sacrifice personal happiness as a noble act, cloaked in the language of "sacrifice" and "self-surrender." However, as the story progresses, Margaret becomes aware of the theatrical nature of her dramatization, acknowledging that she has "overplayed life," an insight that underscores the disparity between her elevated self-image and the reality of her situation.
Satire: The Ridicule of Absurdity
Subtle satire permeates the narrative, critiquing human folly through the absurd behavior of its characters. George's actions towards the end of the story provide a clear example of this indirect satire. Initially, he responds predictably to the revelation of his affair, making excuses and attempting to shift blame. However, his behavior soon devolves into the ridiculous. When Margaret does not respond as expected, George concludes that her distress stems from hunger and fatigue, rather than emotional turmoil. His suggestion that she "must try to eat a good dinner," followed by carrying her to the dining room, is both comical and telling, highlighting the superficiality with which he views their marital crisis. This scene encapsulates the satirical essence of the story, presenting a humorous yet poignant commentary on the trivialization of serious emotional issues.
Symbolism and Imagery: Leaves and the Color Red
Margaret's emotional journey is further enriched by the symbolic use of leaves and the color red. Throughout the story, leaves serve as a metaphor for the passage of time and the continuity of life. Each autumn, Margaret stands at the window, observing the falling leaves, symbols of change and decay. This season, however, the leaves take on a more ominous meaning, representing the death of her marriage and ideals. Outside Rose's villa, the wet leaves evoke thoughts of graves, reinforcing Margaret's sense of loss and disillusionment. In contrast, the color red symbolizes passion and vitality, embodied by Rose and her fiery presence. The red flowers in the library, which George admires, highlight the stark differences between Rose's flamboyance and Margaret's restrained demeanor. This juxtaposition underscores Margaret's insecurities and her perception of George's preference for a more vibrant companion.
In "The Difference," Glasgow's artful use of literary techniques invites readers to delve deeply into Margaret's psyche, illuminating the complexities of her character and the forces that shape her world. Through the skillful interplay of point of view, mood, satire, and symbolism, the narrative offers a profound exploration of human nature and the often-painful journey toward self-awareness and acceptance.
Compare and Contrast
1920s: In 1925, there were 175,000 divorces, amounting to 1.5 per 1,000 people. Securing a divorce without mutual consent was often challenging. Most state courts only approved divorces based on fault grounds, such as adultery, alcoholism, desertion, or cruelty, either mental or physical. To obtain a divorce on these grounds, one had to prove the spouse's fault. Additionally, a spouse could contest the divorce. For example, if a man wanted to divorce to marry another woman, he might lack the necessary grounds for divorce, and his wife could challenge it.
1990s: In 1990, there were 1,182,000 divorces in the U.S., which equated to 4.7 per 1,000 people. If this trend persisted, younger Americans marrying for the first time faced a 40 to 50 percent chance of divorcing in their lifetime. By the mid-1990s, approximately 18 million Americans had gone through a divorce. Despite these discouraging figures, Americans remained devoted to the concept of marriage and ‘‘until death do us part.’’ Ninety-six percent of Americans expressed a personal wish to marry, while only 8 percent of American women preferred to stay single. Furthermore, nearly three-quarters of Americans believed marriage was a lifelong commitment, to be broken only under severe circumstances.
1920s: New artistic movements like Cubism, Dadaism, and Surrealism emerged among European artists. Cubist painters, including Pablo Picasso, created images using geometric forms, shapes, and designs. Dadaism rejected conventional standards, exemplified by Marcel Duchamp's painting of the Mona Lisa with a mustache. Surrealist artists, such as Salvador Dali, sought to depict the unconscious and dream worlds. A group of American painters concentrated on portraying urban landscapes, exploring the machine age's impact on society. Edward Hopper's paintings of New York City, for example, evoked feelings of isolation.
1990s: The visual arts scene offered a variety of formats. Some artists embraced modern technologies; video artists displayed words and images on television screens. Artists created large-scale installations, sometimes reconstructing entire rooms or scenes, often using multiple media. Throughout the decade, some artworks were interactive, inviting viewers to become part of the art.
1920s: Twenty-three percent of American women aged 14 and older worked outside the home. In 1920, women constituted 20 percent of the workforce, but few held professional positions, typically working as domestics and servants. Married women faced discrimination, earning up to 30 percent less than their single counterparts and sometimes being barred from certain professions, such as teaching.
1990s: At the start of the decade, about 48 million women aged 16 and over were employed, making up roughly 44 percent of the U.S. workforce. However, women continued to face unequal treatment, generally earning less than men.
1920s: Concerned about what they see as a decline in moral values, community, religious, and government organizations launch a censorship campaign. Their goal is to restrict media that includes offensive language, radical political ideas, and discussions of sexuality. Books deemed "obscene," such as James Joyce’s novel Ulysses, are prohibited from being published in the U.S., and Hollywood establishes a review board to evaluate movie content.
1990s: The National Endowment for the Arts faces ongoing criticism from conservatives for supporting artists whose work some deem obscene. The Recording Industry Association of America starts placing warning labels on albums with explicit sexual or violent lyrics. Additionally, some school and public libraries remove books from their collections due to perceived inappropriate content.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Auchincloss, Louis. Pioneers and Caretakers: A Study of Nine American Women Novelists, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1961, pp. 56-91.
Lowrie, Rebecca. A critique of The Shadowy Third and Other Stories, in the Literary Review, November 17, 1923, p. 256.
MacDonald, Edgar. ‘‘From Jordan’s End to Frenchman’s Bend: Ellen Glasgow’s Short Stories,’’ in The Mississippi Quarterly, Vol. 49, No. 2, 1996, pp. 319-332.
McDowell, Frederick P.W. ‘‘Ellen Glasgow,’’ in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 9, Part II, Gale, 1981, pp. 44-65.
Raper, Julius Rowan. From the Sunken Garden: The Fiction of Ellen Glasgow, 1916-1945, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1980.
Richards, Marion K. Ellen Glasgow’s Development as a Novelist, The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton, 1971.
Wagner, Linda W. ‘‘Ellen Glasgow,’’ in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 12, Gale, 1982, pp. 213-226.
Wagner, Linda W. Ellen Glasgow: Beyond Convention, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982.
Further Reading
Auchincloss, Louis. Pioneers and Caretakers: A Study of Nine American Women Novelists, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1961. This collection of essays explores the significant contributions of female writers from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries. Auchincloss analyzes how these authors help maintain American traditions while pushing literary boundaries.
Godbold, E. Stanly, Jr. Ellen Glasgow and the Woman Within, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1972. This comprehensive biography of Ellen Glasgow delves into her personal life and literary achievements, complete with photographs.
Holman, C. Hugh. Three Modes of Southern Fiction: Ellen Glasgow, William Faulkner, Thomas Wolfe, Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1966. This book explores how the narratives of Glasgow, Faulkner, and Wolfe reflect different facets of Southern life and history, as well as how Southern culture influenced these writers' development.
Inge, Thomas M., ed. Ellen Glasgow: Centennial Essays, Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1976. A compilation of critical essays on Glasgow’s literary work, including analyses of her novels and philosophical views.
