Historical Context
The English Civil War
The seventeenth century brought significant governmental transformations to England. The initial conflict that began reshaping the nation started in 1629 with King Charles I on the throne. From that year until 1640, the Earl of Strafford, Charles’s chief advisor, and Archbishop Laud imposed coercive measures on Scotland. They incited resentment among the Puritans and Presbyterians by enforcing the use of an Anglican prayer book in Scotland. Consequently, Scotland rebelled and launched an invasion of England.
Following this invasion, King Charles lacked the funds to maintain his army and decided to dissolve Parliament to secure financial resources. This move provoked Parliament to rise against the king and assert its authority. In 1641, Parliament executed the Earl of Strafford and Archbishop Laud and denounced the king's policies. Charles's attempt to overthrow Parliament failed, igniting a civil war. Oliver Cromwell, a fervent Puritan, led Parliament’s forces.
Most of Cromwell's soldiers were Puritans who went into battle singing psalms, earning them the nickname "Battalion of the Saints." They defeated the king's forces at Marston Moor in 1644 and Naseby in 1645. This gave Cromwell a decisive advantage, and in 1649, King Charles I was executed.
The Protectorate
The execution of Charles I forced his son to flee to Scotland, where he declared himself Charles II. Oliver Cromwell now controlled England, with his victorious army still intact. Parliament declared itself a republican Commonwealth. In 1650, Charles II attempted to invade England but was defeated by Cromwell at Worcester in 1651, forcing Charles to flee once more to avoid capture.
From 1652 to 1654, Cromwell led England in the First Anglo-Dutch War. The conflict seesawed until 1654 when the English prevailed, compelling the Dutch to accept the humiliating First Peace of Westminster.
During this period, Cromwell consolidated power over the Commonwealth and was titled "Lord Protector." Under this new regime, the country was divided into eleven districts, each overseen by a major general responsible for tax collection, justice, and public morality. Essentially, Cromwell became the sole ruler of the nation. His strong Puritan influence led to the closure of playhouses, brothels, and alehouses, and banned activities like horse racing and cock-fighting. Behaviors such as drunkenness and blasphemy were harshly punished. Over time, citizens grew increasingly dissatisfied with these stringent laws. However, with a bodyguard of over a hundred men, Cromwell wielded as much power as previous monarchs. His strict Puritan rule incited a deep-seated aversion to military governance and severe Puritanism.
Cromwell passed away on September 3, 1658, throwing the already fragile nation into turmoil. His son, Richard, took over the Protectorate, but the transition was far from smooth. Oliver Cromwell had plunged the country into debt through his naval conquests, leaving the army unpaid, and Richard was ill-equipped to manage the situation. The army demanded the dissolution of Parliament due to the lack of funds for soldiers' wages and rallied against Richard Cromwell, leading to his retirement. Subsequently, the army reinstated the old Rump Parliament, which asserted control over the military and navy.
The Restoration
Frustrated by Cromwell's stringent Puritanism, Parliament invited Charles II to take the throne. However, before allowing his return, Charles had to agree to certain conditions—religious tolerance and amnesty for those involved in the execution of his father, Charles I. Charles accepted these terms and returned to England to assume the throne.
During Charles II’s reign, society saw a revival of activities that had been banned under Cromwell. Theatres, sports, and dancing were once again permitted. Additionally, Charles II’s court became known for its relaxed moral standards.
While Charles enjoyed popularity at home, he faced difficulties abroad....
(This entire section contains 856 words.)
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The English resented the Dutch for their mercantile success and, combined with the spread of the plague in that region, were reluctant to trade with Holland. Similarly, the Dutch were not fond of England’s new king. This mutual animosity led to the Second Anglo-Dutch War, which began in 1665.
In the summer, the plague reached London and thrived in the crowded, hot conditions. Those with wealth or status panicked and fled to the countryside. By June, the roads were overwhelmed with citizens desperate to escape, prompting the mayor to close the city gates. Only individuals with a health certificate were allowed to leave, leading to a thriving black market for forged certificates. Death rates soared throughout the summer, peaking at an estimated six thousand per week in August. By fall, the plague began to wane, and by February 1666, the king deemed it safe to return to the city.
On September 2 of the same year, disaster struck again. Early in the morning, a small house fire ignited nearby buildings. Strong winds spread the flames, setting more houses ablaze. The fire became so uncontrollable that the only solution was to demolish unburned houses to prevent further spread. The fire raged for three days before it was subdued. However, relief turned to horror when the fire rekindled the next day, continuing its destruction. More houses had to be demolished to finally extinguish the blaze.
This disaster, combined with the already chaotic state of the British navy, resulted in their defeat by the Dutch, even though the war did not formally conclude until the Peace of Breda in 1667.
Style and Technique
Description
Pepys recounts his memoirs with an authenticity that critics have noted as unparalleled in diary literature. Since Pepys did not write his entries for public consumption, he documented both mundane and significant events with a journalist's precision. For instance, on October 13, 1660, Pepys details the historic execution of one of Charles I’s adversaries: ‘‘I went out to Charing Cross, to see Major-general Harrison hanged, drawn, and quartered.’’ In the same entry, he also notes his rather routine afternoon, ‘‘setting up shelves in my study.’’
Pepys's descriptions become more elaborate when he is particularly inspired. One of the most renowned examples is his account of the Great Fire of London in 1666, where he describes his efforts to help. In an exceptionally vivid diary entry on September 2, 1666, Pepys writes: ‘‘The houses, too, so very thick thereabouts, and full of matter of burning, as pitch and tarr, in Thames-street; and warehouses of oyle, and wines, and brandy, and other things.’’ He uses colorful language to depict other aspects of the fire, such as ‘‘almost burned with a shower of fire-drops’’ and ‘‘the cracking of houses at their ruine.’’
Point of View
The Diary of Samuel Pepys offers a personal account, narrated exclusively from Pepys’s perspective. Consequently, events are viewed through the lens of a wealthy naval administrator, leaving certain viewpoints unexplored. This is evident in the contrast between Pepys and his subordinates, both at home and in the English navy. For example, on the morning of December 2, 1660, Pepys notes that his maid had not completed a task correctly, prompting him to beat her with a broom, which left him ‘‘vexed.’’ He mentions that ‘‘before I went out I left her appeased.’’ While Pepys may believe he has reconciled with the servant, ‘‘she cried extremely’’ during the beating, suggesting she might have a different perspective on the incident.
Similarly, Pepys claims to be concerned about the issues faced by his employees, the sailors, who have not been compensated for their work and therefore cannot provide for their families. This problem is widespread due to the navy's disorganization, and Pepys is well aware of it. While the sailors suffer from hunger, Pepys profits by collecting certain tariffs from his suppliers, increasing his wealth. Occasionally, he does try to assist his employees. For instance, on the evening of March 27, 1662, he pays a group of seamen their wages from his own funds and then goes "to dinner, very merry."
Although this is a commendable act, the narrative rarely addresses the needs of the sailors, focusing instead on Pepys' charitable deeds or how the unrest might affect his status. A seaman deprived of his wages would likely have a different viewpoint than Pepys, especially if he knew how Pepys was benefiting while he and his family went hungry.
Compare and Contrast
1660s: London suffers two major catastrophes: the Great Plague of 1665 and the Great Fire of London in 1666. The city faces significant loss of life due to the rapid spread of both the plague and the fire in its densely populated areas.
Today: Numerous scientists dedicate their careers to researching various disasters—both natural and human-made—in order to develop strategies to prevent extensive damage.
1660s: During the lively Restoration period in England, following the strict governance of the Cromwellian Protectorate, many people enjoy theatrical performances that delve into topics previously banned.
Today: Due to rising incidents of violence in schools, workplaces, and other public spaces, many conservative groups call for the censorship of violent content in television and movies.
1660s: To restore England’s prestige after Charles II's return to the throne, English forces seize the Dutch port of New Amsterdam, a bustling trade hub. They rename it New York, in honor of the king’s brother, the Duke of York, who is also the Lord High Admiral of the navy.
Today: In an act of terror, planes are crashed into the World Trade Center in New York, a symbol of global commerce and prosperity. The mayor of New York pledges that the city will rebuild and refuse to be intimidated by terrorists.
Adaptations
The Diary of Samuel Pepys was released as an audiobook in 1996 by the HighBridge Company. Kenneth Branagh is the narrator for this edition.
Bibliography
Sources
Coote, Stephen, Samuel Pepys: A Life, Palgrave, 2001, pp. 65, 81, 104.
Gosse, Edmund, ‘‘Prose after the Restoration,’’ in A History of Eighteenth Century Literature (1660–1780), Macmillan and Co., 1889, pp. 73–104.
Jeffrey, Francis, ‘‘An Excerpt from a Review of Memoirs of Samuel Pepys, Esq.,’’ in the Edinburgh Review, Vol. XLIII, No. LXXXV, November 1825, pp. 23–54.
Johnson, Paul, ‘‘Honest, Shrewd and Naïve,’’ in the Spectator, Vol. 255, September 21, 1985, pp. 24–25.
Lubbock, Percy, Excerpt from Samuel Pepys, Hodder and Stoughton, 1909, p. 284.
Scott, Sir Walter, ‘‘An Excerpt from a Review of Memoirs of Samuel Pepys, Esq.,’’ in the Quarterly Review, Vol. XXXIII, No. LXVI, March 1826, pp. 281–314.
Warshaw, J., ‘‘Pepys as a Dramatic Critic,’’ in Drama, Vol. 10, No. 6–7, March–April 1920, pp. 209–13.
Whibley, Charles, ‘‘The Real Pepys,’’ in The Pageantry of Life, edited by William Heinemann, Folcroft Library Editions, 1973, pp. 107–23.
Further Reading
Coote, Stephen, Royal Survivor: The Life of Charles II, St. Martin’s Press, 2000. Biographer Coote explores Charles II’s reign, detailing his belief in the monarchy’s ancient rights, his political strategies, and his concealed Catholic faith.
Kennedy, Paul M., The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, Humanity Books, 1986. This book delves into the political history of the British navy from the early 1600s to the 1970s.
Miller, John, The Restoration and the England of Charles II, Longman, 1997. This essay collection features contributions from recognized experts on the Restoration and Charles II.
Picard, Liza, Restoration London: From Poverty to Pets, from Medicine to Magic, from Slang to Sex, from Wallpaper to Women’s Rights, St. Martin’s Press, 1998. As the extensive subtitle suggests, this book is a treasure trove of information about everyday life in Restoration London, with The Diary of Samuel Pepys being one of its numerous sources.
Quinsey, Katherine M., Broken Boundaries: Women & Feminism in Restoration Drama, University Press of Kentucky, 1996. This essay collection investigates the transitional Restoration era, during which women gradually gained more rights in the theater, including performing onstage as actresses and contributing as writers behind the scenes.