often leaned towards isolationism. Woodrow Wilson secured reelection in 1916 with the slogan, “He Kept Us Out of War.” However, the following year, the U.S. joined World War I after German submarines sank the Lusitania, resulting in the deaths of nearly twelve hundred people, including over one hundred children and one hundred and twenty Americans.

By the time “The Diamond as Big as the Ritz” was published, the war had been over for nearly four years, and the United States had retreated even further into isolationism. The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 marked the first legislation to limit immigration into the country, significantly reducing the number of immigrants permitted annually (with further restrictions imposed by the Immigration Act of 1924).

During this period of withdrawal from global affairs, Prohibition was also in effect. Ratified in 1919 and enacted in 1920, the Eighteenth Amendment banned the consumption of all alcoholic beverages. Additionally, the Sedition Act of 1918, which had prohibited citizens from publicly criticizing the government and its wartime policies, was repealed in 1921. The combination of national isolation and curtailed personal freedoms prompted many artists of the era to leave the country, spending time in Europe—most notably Paris, where Fitzgerald resided while writing The Great Gatsby.

Postwar Economic Boom
The decade following World War I (1914–1918) was a period of economic prosperity for the United States. More efficient production methods developed during the war to offset the reduced workforce now led to increased productivity, resulting in higher wages for workers and shorter work hours. This newfound efficiency gave Americans both the means and the leisure to purchase more goods, ushering in a new era of consumerism.

This economic boom was beneficial for Fitzgerald, whose stories often depicted the lives of the extremely wealthy and carefree. However, the popularity of his work declined significantly during the Great Depression, as people struggling to survive found these types of stories less entertaining and relevant.

New Freedoms for Women
In 1920, women gained the right to vote and entered the workforce in greater numbers throughout the decade. These new freedoms, combined with the era's prosperity, gave rise to flappers—irreverent young women who defied traditional norms with their bold fashion, short hairstyles, and daring attitudes towards men and romance. Fitzgerald first gained fame with his stories about flappers, and tales such as “Bernice Bobs Her Hair,” “The Offshore Pirate,” and “The Jelly-Bean” remain popular among readers.

Point of View
“The Diamond as Big as the Ritz” is narrated from a third-person perspective, focusing on John T. Unger. Through Unger's viewpoint, Fitzgerald criticizes not only the Washingtons' immoral lifestyle but also the middle-class obsession with wealth that enables such opulence. Readers anticipate Unger to voice some outrage or horror at the Washingtons' way of life. However, until his own life is in danger, Unger appears willing to overlook almost anything to continue enjoying their luxurious lifestyle. Being less affluent than his peers at St. Midas, Unger is more easily captivated by their wealth, and his amazement at their home's extravagance aligns closely with what an average reader might feel.

Mythical Allusions
Numerous allusions to myths and fables imbue the story with a fable-like quality. From the outset, when the reader learns that John hails from Hades—the Greek mythological underworld—the narrative shifts from realism to fantasy. Characters frequently comment on the heat in Hades (“Is it hot enough for you down there?”), and when John departs for St. Midas—another mythological reference—his father reassures him, “we’ll keep the home fires burning.”

References to historical and mythical figures are abundant. As Percy and John approach the Washingtons' estate, John ponders, “What desperate transaction lay hidden here? What a moral expedient of a bizarre Croesus?” Croesus was a Greek king famed for his immense wealth. The Washingtons' estate is often likened to “El Dorado,” a legendary South American kingdom reputed to be rich in gold. Finally, when Braddock Washington offers his diamond bribe to God, Fitzgerald writes, “Prometheus Enriched was calling to witness forgotten sacrifices, forgotten rituals, prayers obsolete before the birth of Christ.” This alludes to Prometheus Bound, a myth-based drama by the Greek playwright Aeschylus. Prometheus, a mythological figure who defied Zeus to aid humanity, was punished by being chained to a rock where an eagle perpetually devoured his liver.

These references to myths and legends prompt readers to view the narrative as a symbolic fable rather than a realistic tale. Additionally, they imply that the themes in this story are timeless and universal.

Hyperbole
Fitzgerald's use of hyperbole, or extreme exaggeration, enhances the fantastical atmosphere, and his descriptions of the Washingtons' home possess a surreal quality. By depicting the chateau as impossibly luxurious, Fitzgerald signals to the reader that this is not a literal or realistic story:

In one room, the soft, solid gold walls gave way under the pressure of his hand, creating a sense of malleability. Another room resembled the ultimate prison in a platonic sense—its ceiling, floor, and walls were completely covered in an unbroken expanse of diamonds. These diamonds, in every size and shape, when lit by tall violet lamps in the corners, dazzled the eyes with a brilliance that could only be compared to itself, transcending human wishes or dreams.

A diamond the size of a mountain, a crystal-clear bathtub with tropical fish swimming beneath the glass, hallways lined with fur, dinner plates made of solid diamond, and a car interior upholstered with tapestries, gold, and precious gems—all these extravagant and surreal elements contribute to the otherworldly nature of the Washingtons’ estate. Moreover, they imply that excessiveness can be overwhelming, even grotesque.

Religious Imagery
Fitzgerald employs religious imagery throughout the story to highlight the absolute corruption of the Washingtons, and to a lesser extent, the corruption of John Unger. Coming from his hometown of Hades (Hell), John’s parents send him to St. Midas School. The name suggests the priorities of a school that would canonize the mythical King Midas, as well as the priorities of the parents who send their sons there. From St. Midas, John travels to the Washingtons’ home, stopping in the village of Fish, which is inhabited by twelve men. The fish symbolizes Christianity, and the twelve men are reminiscent of Jesus’ apostles. However, the twelve men of Fish are “beyond all religion.” They all gather to watch the train arrive and the wealthy passengers disembark, indicating that even the apostles are captivated by wealth in this context.

The Washingtons’ chateau and property are depicted as a paradise comparable only to Heaven itself:

The numerous towers, the delicate tracery of the sloping parapets, the intricate beauty of a thousand yellow windows with their oblongs, hexagons, and triangles of golden light, and the soft interplay of star-shine and blue shade, all resonated with John’s spirit like a harmonious chord of music.

And, much like Heaven, once John arrives, he discovers he cannot return to the mortal world, due to Braddock Washington, the reigning deity of this Eden. The climactic scene, where Washington offers a bribe to God, demonstrates that Braddock considers himself equal to or even superior to God: “He, Braddock Washington, Emperor of Diamonds, king and priest of the age of gold, arbiter of splendor and luxury, would offer up a treasure such as princes before him had never dreamed of, offer it up not in supplication, but in pride.” Upon finishing his proposal, he lifts his head to the heavens “like a prophet of old.” This perversion may allude to Moses, who ascends the mountain in devotion to receive the Ten Commandments.

These warped and corrupted depictions of religion—apostles without faith, a Heaven one can enter while alive but must die to exit, praying not with humility but with arrogance—symbolize how the Washingtons’ morals and values have been distorted by their own greed and materialism.

• 1920s: Although more women are entering the workforce (21 percent of women aged sixteen and over, primarily in clerical, domestic, or factory roles), society generally discourages women from working, particularly mothers. Consequently, most women's living standards rely entirely on their husbands' incomes. Fathers, like Braddock Washington, are hesitant to let their daughters marry men with modest earnings. The typical age for a woman to marry is twenty. (Zelda Sayre initially rejects Fitzgerald but agrees to marry him only after he finds success with his writing.)

  Today: Over 60 percent of women aged sixteen and over are part of the U.S. workforce. In more than half of the country's married couples with children, both parents work outside the home. The average age for a woman to marry is around twenty-five.

• 1920s: After World War I, the United States adopts an isolationist stance. Congress votes against joining the League of Nations, there is widespread paranoia about communism, and immigration is limited.

  Today: Advances in communication technology and global trade make isolationism nearly impossible. From the latter half of the twentieth century into the early 2000s, U.S. intervention in other countries' affairs becomes common, though not always popular. A recent example is the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003.

• 1920s: In 1920, the annual tuition at Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire, one of the nation's most exclusive prep schools, is two hundred and fifty dollars. In the story, John T. Unger attends St. Midas School, described as “the most expensive and the most exclusive boys’ preparatory school in the world.”

  Today: The annual tuition for day students at Phillips Exeter Academy exceeds twenty-five thousand dollars, while boarding students pay nearly thirty-five thousand dollars a year.

Sources
“American Short Stories,” in Times Literary Supplement, April 19, 1923, p. 264.

Boyd, Woodward, “Tales of the Jazz Age: The Fitzgerald Legend,” in F. Scott Fitzgerald in His Own Time: A Miscellany, edited by Matthew J. Bruccoli and Jackson R. Bryer, Kent State University Press, 1971, p. 340. Originally published as “The Fitzgerald Legend,” in Daily News (St. Paul), December 10, 1922.

Bryer, Jackson, The Critical Reputation of F. Scott Fitzgerald: A Bibliographical Study, Archon Books, 1967, p. 41.

Fitzgerald, F. Scott, “The Diamond as Big as the Ritz,” in The Best Early Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald, edited by Bryant Mangum, Modern Library, 2005, pp. 191–229.

“The Future of Fitzgerald,” in F. Scott Fitzgerald in His Own Time: A Miscellany, edited by Matthew J. Bruccoli and Jackson R. Bryer, Kent State University Press, 1971, p. 413. Originally published in Journal (Minneapolis), December 31, 1922.

Hawthorne, Hildegarde, Review of Tales of the Jazz Age, in New York Times Book Review, October 29, 1922, p. 12.

Miller, James E., Jr., “Transition,” in F. Scott Fitzgerald: His Art and His Technique, New York University Press, 1964, p. 59.

Petry, Alice Hall, “Tales of the Jazz Age,” in Fitzgerald’s Craft of Short Fiction: The Collected Stories 1920–1935, UMI Research Press, 1989, p. 61.

Smith, Ellison D., “‘Shut the Door’: A Senator Speaks for Immigration Restriction,” in Congressional Record, Vol. 65, pp. 5961–62, www.historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5080 (accessed October 29, 2006).

Further Reading
Bruccoli, Matthew J., Fitzgerald and Hemingway: A Dangerous Friendship, Manly, 1994. Bruccoli, regarded as one of the leading authorities on Fitzgerald’s life and work, uses the correspondence between these two authors to explore their friendship. He chronicles the evolution of their relationship from its friendly beginnings in Paris in 1925 to the more strained interactions of the 1930s, when Hemingway grew increasingly critical of Fitzgerald.

Bruccoli, Matthew J., and Scottie Fitzgerald Smith, Some Sort of Epic Grandeur: The Life of F. Scott Fitzgerald, University of South Carolina Press, 1981. This book, considered by many as the definitive biography of F. Scott Fitzgerald, is co-authored by Fitzgerald expert Bruccoli and Fitzgerald’s daughter. It offers an unsentimental and comprehensive examination of Fitzgerald’s life, including his struggles with alcoholism and his wife’s mental health issues, and features examples of his correspondence with friends and family.

Fitzgerald, F. Scott, The Crack-Up, edited by Edmund Wilson, New Directions Publishing, 1945. This collection of confessional essays, letters, and journal entries details Fitzgerald’s gradual emotional and professional decline. The title essay was first published in Esquire magazine in 1936. The collection was edited by Edmund Wilson, a longtime friend of Fitzgerald.

Mangum, Bryant, A Fortune Yet: Money in the Art of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s Short Stories, Garland, 1991. In this book, Bryant Mangum, a professor of English at Virginia Commonwealth University, examines Fitzgerald’s portrayal of wealth and the wealthy in his short fiction, highlighting the author’s simultaneous fascination with and disdain for the very rich.