The extensive treatise by John Adams, "A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America," is a profound exploration of republican governance, spanning eras from ancient Greece to his contemporary America. Prompted by the tumult of Shays' Rebellion and the movement to revise the American constitution, Adams compiled this work in fourteen months. The text is a blend of historical analysis and personal insights, aiming to assert the superiority of a balanced republican system.

Purpose and Motivation

Adams' treatise was crafted with multiple objectives in mind. Primarily, he aimed to refute the claims of French philosopher Turgot, who accused Americans of blindly mimicking English governance, particularly in adopting checks and balances within their state constitutions. Adams, through his own Massachusetts constitution, championed these principles, setting them against the "simple" centralized systems advocated by Turgot and implemented in Pennsylvania by Benjamin Franklin. By examining historical republics, Adams sought to demonstrate that their failures stemmed from improper power distribution.

Philosophical Foundations

Adams held a firm belief that governments function according to "unalterable rules," and he abhorred absolutism in any form, whether monarchial or egalitarian. He argued that such systems suppress the full potential of individuals, prevent the employment of a society's full talent, and fail to curb abuses in administration. Adams advocated for a "mixture" of the virtues of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. Although this balanced approach drew criticism from political adversaries, his work critiqued all three forms of governance. He famously claimed that true freedom necessitates a democratic element in the constitution, suggesting that America might fare better with the internal challenges of a democratic republic than under an absolute monarchy.

Structure and Balance of Power

Adams was convinced that sovereignty originates from the majority of the populace and insisted that the legislative branch should embody democratic principles. However, he was wary of entrusting unbridled power to the masses without safeguards. He thus proposed a senate to balance the representative house, serving not only as a defender of property interests but also as a place for ambitious politicians. His advocacy for separate but equal executive, judicial, and legislative branches underscored his belief in a government of laws rather than of men. A single, accountable executive was crucial to deterring administrative excesses, ensuring that America developed a practical and balanced system of governance.

Critique of Pure Democracy

Skeptical of the unrestrained passion for democracy, Adams contested Turgot's notion equating the love of democracy with the love of equality. He argued that "every man hates to have a superior...and no man is willing to have an equal." In Adams' view, true democracy suggested a chaotic society lacking established governance. He posited that reason and moral conscience were the only true defenses against the pursuit of fame and public endorsement, asserting that a republic with mixed traits could transform even the most corrupt individuals by setting them to watch one another.

Natural Aristocracy and its Implications

Adams acknowledged the existence of a "natural aristocracy" borne out of inherent disparities in wealth, birth, and talent. While not inherently dangerous, he warned that an unchecked unicameral legislature could devolve into oligarchy or monarchy, undermining liberty and equality with public consent. He believed that human nature was more inclined towards selfishness than altruism, and thus, trusted neither a singular legislative body nor any one individual's pursuit of wealth or fame. He advocated for distinct, balanced assemblies to prevent mischief and to provide checks on each other and the executive.

The Necessity of Balanced Government

Adams argued that Americans' adherence to English traditions of balancing power through separate branches stemmed from "conviction" rather than...