Blunderstone Rookery

Blunderstone Rookery. Suffolk birthplace and boyhood home of David Copperfield, who often associates the place in his mind with the nearby tombstone of his father. Charles Dickens himself grew up in Suffolk and always tied it to childhood innocence. David’s earliest memories of happy evenings with his mother and nurse Peggotty soon give way to the strict and cruel house presided over by his new stepfather and aunt. He retreats to his room and finds refuge in his father’s books. This same room is a prison for five days of punishment which to the boy seem a nightmare of years. Peggotty tries to send him affection and tenderness through the keyhole, but nothing can forestall Mr. Murdstone’s determination to send him away to school.

*Yarmouth

*Yarmouth. Norfolk seaport, about 110 miles northeast of London, where Dan Peggotty and his three dependents live in a boathouse. Little David first travels here on a two-week visit, little knowing that he will return to a changed rookery with Murdstone installed as his stepfather. For David, the boathouse is better than Aladdin’s palace; he even has his own special room, something that becomes increasingly important to him. In later visits to the Ark, as he calls it, David brings his school friend, Steerforth, unwittingly leading to Little Em’ly’s seduction. Her surrogate father, Peggotty, then insists on placing a candle in the window as a visible sign that he welcomes her back home.

Yarmouth’s beach is also the scene of the tempest. The foundering ship is Steerforth’s “Little Em’ly,” and Ham swims out to rescue a lone survivor on its deck. Symbolically, both men are lost as the boat sinks, and when Steerforth’s body washes ashore, it lands on the very spot where the old houseboat, now wrecked, stood with its nightly candle.

Salem House

Salem House. Dr. Creakle’s school, where Murdstone sends the recalcitrant David. Dickens powerfully projects the unhappy boy, the lonely schoolroom, the wicked giant of a schoolmaster. When Ham and Peggotty come to visit David, Steerforth suggests that he would like to visit their boathouse. However, tragedy falls, and David is told that his mother and new brother are dead; he is removed from Salem House on his tenth birthday.

*London

*London. Great Britain’s capital city, in which several sections of the novel are set. The first is at Murdstone and Grinby’s warehouse in the Blackfriars district waterfront. Here ten-year-old David pastes labels on wine bottles in much the same way the young Dickens had been sent out to work in a boot-blacking factory in London. David feels “thrown away” on a deadening job and unable to express his agony. A lighter note is provided by his stay with the Micawbers, a happy-go-lucky and improvident family. When Mr. Micawber is imprisoned for debt in the King’s Bench Prison, David visits them, much as Dickens had done with his own family.

London is also the setting for David’s job as a proctor after he graduates from Dr. Strong’s school. He takes an apartment in Buckingham Street. It is from here that he courts Dora. After the wedding, they move into their new home in Highgate. It is a sweet, loving home, marred only by Dora’s ineptitude as a housekeeper: the food is raw, the pantry is empty, and the servants are ill-managed. Dora and her dog Jip die here.

The tense and unnatural Steerforth home is located in London, which is also the location of the Blackfriars Bridge scene. Here Dickens is powerful in evoking the dismal and defiled riverside, and in linking its miseries to a suicidal Martha Endell. David’s encounter with this fallen woman ultimately leads Dan Peggotty to Em’ly, who has come to stay with Martha in a decaying old mansion in one of the worst sections of the city.

*Dover

*Dover. Southeast England port that is home to Betsey Trotwood. When ten-year-old David can no longer stand the misery of his job at the warehouse in London, he decides to run away to seek out his great aunt Betsey Trotwood. He has never seen her before, but the shred of a tender memory once shared with him by his mother makes him hopeful of finding refuge with her. His six-day journey begins with the theft of his possessions, his nearly starving to death, and his frightening experiences with robbers and a malicious pawnbroker. This journey through the countryside from London to Dover is the occasion for Dickens to display his unique combination of suspense, humor, action, and pathos. In Dover at last, the child is welcomed by his aunt, bathed, and put to sleep in a snug bedroom.

*Europe

*Europe. Peggotty plods his way through France, Italy, and Switzerland, determined to find and rescue his niece Em’ly. In Naples, when Steerforth tires of his seduction of Em’ly, he gives her over to his valet, Littimer. She manages to escape him and desperately makes her way back to London. David, too, wanders for three years in Europe, unhappy at his wife’s death and aimlessly searching for something that is missing in his life. In Switzerland, Agnes reaches him with a letter, and he is encouraged enough to write a novel and then return to Canterbury.

*Australia

*Australia. Southern hemispheric continent to which Dan Peggotty, Em’ly, Martha, Mrs. Gummidge, and the whole Micawber family go in the hope of finding new beginnings to their lives. Dickens sends his characters there in order to wrap up the novel’s diverse narrative threads. At the time in which Dickens wrote, Australia was a collection of British colonies that were notorious as the destinations of convicted scoundrels, rogues, and adventure seekers. Mrs. Micawber suggests that “For a man who conducts himself well . . . and is industrious . . . It is evident to me that Australia is the legitimate sphere of action for Mr. Micawber!”

*Canterbury

*Canterbury. Cathedral town in southeastern England to which David goes to attend the excellent school of Dr. Strong. David again has his own room in a house where he is loved. After he leaves here to work in London, he is troubled to hear that Uriah Heep, who is in control of the Wickfields, has taken David’s old room. Later, when David ultimately realizes that he loves Agnes, he returns from Europe and finds his old room is in readiness for his arrival. Like a little ragged boy heading to a safe harbor, David is at last home.

The Beginnings of Social Change
At the close of the eighteenth century, British society was broadly divided into three classes: the aristocracy, the gentry, and the yeoman class. However, the revolutionary spirit of the American and French Revolutions began to permeate English society. Over the next few decades, class distinctions started to blur and evolve. As individuals in the lower middle classes grew more affluent, they began to imitate the behaviors of the upper classes, much like the landed gentry of the upper middle class did. Throughout the nineteenth century, many people advanced financially through commerce and factory work. These middle-class individuals increasingly adopted the manners, dress, and decor associated with the gentry and lesser aristocracy. Characters like the Murdstones and the Steerforths in David Copperfield illustrate this rising middle class. In contrast, David’s parents, his aunt, and the Wickfields belong to the middle class but do not aspire to the pretensions of the aristocracy.

Nineteenth-century London
Despite these changes, the disparity between the wealthy and the poor was stark in nineteenth-century London. A small portion of the city consisted of well-maintained residences and shopping districts. The upper and middle classes predominantly resided in these areas, especially in the West End, avoiding the remaining three-fourths of the city. The East End, in particular, was notorious for its poverty, overcrowding, and corruption. Each year, the gap between the rich and poor grew wider. New villages sprang up, especially near the docks, but the wages from the city’s bustling port were insufficient to support the workers adequately. This extreme urban stratification caught the attention of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. They co-authored the Communist Manifesto (1848), and Engels wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England (1844), vividly describing the living conditions in central London and Manchester, contrasting them with the affluent outskirts. Their works outlined the causes, effects, and political solutions to poverty, providing the ideological foundation for the communist revolutions of the twentieth century.

Benthamism
Benthamism, also known as utilitarianism, emerged as a significant ideology in Victorian society, particularly among the middle class. This term is linked to the philosophy of Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), detailed in his Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789). Bentham's ideas gained widespread acceptance among the Victorian middle class, influencing their behaviors and beliefs. By the 1820s, Benthamism had attracted numerous followers who championed his theories in public debates. Supporters of Bentham’s philosophy gained political influence in the 1830s, with around one hundred of them being elected to the first reform-oriented Parliament in England.

At the heart of this philosophy was the belief in “the greatest happiness for the greatest number,” a phrase borrowed from Joseph Priestley, an eighteenth-century Unitarian theologian. This concept appeared in Bentham’s Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. In Victorian People and Ideas, Richard D. Altick elaborates:

Utilitarianism was entirely hedonistic; it did not account for the promptings of conscience or the forces of generosity, mercy, compassion, self-sacrifice, and love. Benthamite ethics had no connection with Christian morality.

This belief was rooted in the idea that self-interest should be the primary concern and that happiness could be achieved by avoiding pain and seeking pleasure. These qualities are evident in James Steerforth’s character.

Evangelicalism
Another significant middle-class movement in the nineteenth century was evangelicalism, a form of Protestant pietism. Evangelicalism emphasized daily living and eventual salvation over doctrine. It established strict conduct patterns for its followers to find atonement for their sins. Altick notes that “the Evangelical’s anxious eye was forever fixed upon the ‘eternal microscope’ which searched for every moral blemish and reported every motion of the soul.” The treatment of David by Edward Murdstone and his sister exemplifies this rigid, moralistic code.

Both utilitarian and evangelical movements are also noted for their involvement in humanitarian activities during the Victorian era and their advocacy for social reforms. Benthamites supported universal suffrage and education, while evangelicals successfully fought for the improvement of harsh prison conditions.

A Victorian Woman’s Place
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, women, like men, were confined to the social classes into which they were born, unless their fathers or husbands moved within the social hierarchy. The strict rules for each social class defined and determined women’s lives. Women in the upper classes had the leisure to become educated; however, like their lower-class counterparts, they were not expected to think for themselves and were rarely listened to when they did. Urges for independence and self-determination were suppressed in women from all classes. The strict social morality of the period demanded that middle-class women and those in higher classes exhibit the standards of polite femininity, culminating in the ideals of marriage and motherhood. David Copperfield both reinforces (David’s mother, Dora) and challenges (Betsey Trotwood) the period’s attitudes toward women. Most female characters, however, operate within the confines of the middle class. Miss Trotwood’s quick mind and independent spirit are tolerated because she is considered eccentric and is a widow.

Realism
The Realism movement emerged in Paris in the early 1800s, aiming to ensure that art would not merely imitate life but would represent it accurately. Thus, realistic works can be seen as the literature of truth. Realism gained popularity in painting, notably in the works of Gustave Courbet, and in literature during the mid-nineteenth century, particularly in the novels of Gustave Flaubert. Authors within this movement distanced themselves from the perceived artificiality of romanticism, focusing instead on the ordinary aspects of contemporary life. They rejected the idealism and imaginative celebration typical of romantic novels, opting instead for a serious examination of believable characters and their often complicated social interactions.

To achieve this, realist novels emphasize the commonplace and avoid the unlikely coincidences and excessive emotionalism characteristic of romanticism. Novelists like Thomas Hardy abandoned traditional sentimental elements to depict the strengths and weaknesses of ordinary individuals facing challenging personal and social issues. Writers who adopted realism used settings and plot details that mirrored their characters' daily lives, along with realistic dialogue that closely mimicked the natural speech patterns of people from various social classes.

An example of realism in David Copperfield is Dickens’s depiction of the harsh conditions experienced by the lower classes in London. Dickens was among the first authors to document the monotonous, harsh, and sordid lives of this group in his fiction. However, some scholars argue that the endings of his novels, including David Copperfield, adhere to the romantic tradition.

David Copperfield begins in Blunderstone Rookery, a house nestled in rural Suffolk. Although the rooks no longer nested there, David's father loved the idea of living near a rookery. This home serves as an idyllic setting until his mother remarries. After her marriage to Murdstone, the house transforms into a prison, with Murdstone and his equally "firm" sister acting as wardens.

Prior to this second marriage, David visits the seacoast near Yarmouth with his nurse, Peggotty. Dickens described Yarmouth to his friend John Forster as "the strangest place in the wide world," featuring miles of flat coastline, a calm sea, and marshes stretching toward the water. Peggotty's brother, Dan'l, lives in a small house with a roof crafted from the bottom of a boat. Dickens had a lifelong fascination with the sea, which prominently features in several of his works, including Dombey and Son and Great Expectations. David and Em'ly spend countless hours collecting seashells and stones along the shore, and during his stay in Yarmouth, David falls innocently in love with her. The sea profoundly influences the lives of Dan'l and his fellow fishermen, who believe many will die as the tide ebbs. Throughout the novel, David makes several visits to Yarmouth.

On his way to his first school, Salem House Academy, David sees London for the first time and is awe-struck, although his stay is brief. Salem House is located six miles outside the city in Blackheath. He becomes intimately familiar with the capital less than two years later while working at Murdstone and Grinby, where he washes and labels wine bottles. His knowledge of the city deepens further when he apprentices to Mr. Spenlow to train as a proctor in the Commons and as a parliamentary reporter. Dickens, having had similar experiences, knew London in a way few writers ever have. Even in his later years, he would walk the streets late at night to develop his plots and characters. The Murdstone and Grinby warehouse is situated by the Thames, but the river only becomes a significant setting later when David and Dan'l Peggotty save the prostitute Martha Endell from committing suicide in it.

David Copperfield finds sanctuary at Betsy Trotwood's cottage, situated by the sea in Dover. The narrative briefly adopts a picaresque tone as David journeys from London to his aunt’s home. He stays there for only a short period, accompanied by his aunt and her protege, Mr. Dick. Aunt Betsy soon arranges for David to attend school in Canterbury, an ancient cathedral city that holds a similar significance to the Anglican Church as Rome does to the Catholic Church. The Archbishop of Canterbury, the head of the Anglican Communion, resides there. Dickens vividly captures the city's tranquil and medieval charm, with the cathedral bells ringing incessantly. Even the rooks seem to be a vital part of the scenery, as significant as the towers themselves. The city is also known for its beautiful gardens, including the one where Dr. Strong, the headmaster of David's second school, takes his daily walks while planning his dictionary.

After completing his education, David returns to London to start his career. He makes several visits to Yarmouth and Canterbury, with Dickens masterfully depicting the great storm in Yarmouth where both Ham Peggotty and James Steerforth meet their tragic end. Tolstoy considered this one of the finest episodes in fiction, showcasing Dickens' exceptional talent for drama.

Grieving the loss of Dora and the death of his school friend, Steerforth, David Copperfield travels through Europe, eventually settling for an extended time in the Lausanne region of Switzerland. Dickens himself visited Lausanne with his family in 1846 and was enchanted by the quiet town and the majestic Alps in the background. In Lausanne, Copperfield’s literary alter ego reconciles with his losses, finds peace, and returns to England to continue his life.

Chapter Design
David Copperfield was released in monthly, one-shilling parts from May 1849 to November 1850. Dickens understood that serialization influenced his readers' experience. He meticulously crafted each installment so that every segment was interconnected and could stand alone as a complete unit. He was not only focused on the arrangement of David Copperfield’s installments but also on the structure of each chapter, the only narrative elements over which he had total control.

Serial publication made Victorian readers wait between issues. Fathers often read these installments aloud to their families, providing home entertainment similar to a modern-day television series. The chapters in David Copperfield signify new beginnings or obstacles for David, propelling the plot forward and keeping readers intrigued. The start and end of chapters serve as narrative focal points, crucial for highlighting the novel's themes and creating suspense to encourage readers to purchase the next installment. Dickens’s use of chapter titles emphasizes these stress points and offers readers significant details that foreshadow David’s future experiences and provide insight into their meaning.

Frequently, chapter titles indicate significant stages in David’s life. For instance, chapter 3, “I Have a Change,” announces his trip to Yarmouth where he meets the Peggottys, who significantly impact his development. The conclusion of chapter 2 effectively sets up this transition by depicting David’s anxiety about leaving his mother and venturing to a new place with Peggotty. Other chapters, like chapter 4, not only highlight new developments in David’s life but also suggest their impact on him. The title, “I Fall Into Disgrace,” signals changes in his household and his relationship with his mother, marking the end of his idyllic childhood. Dickens ends the previous chapter with David being frightened by Murdstone’s ferocious dog, anticipating this upcoming change. Artistic considerations and financial aspects influenced Dickens's chapter construction; he crafted a plot that accommodated these divisions and understood he would earn more from affordable installments than from selling the novel in one or more expensive volumes.

Bildungsroman
David Copperfield is a bildungsroman, a novel that narrates the journey of growing up and maturing. This story is framed as an autobiography, with the adult David Copperfield recounting his life, starting from the details of his birth as relayed to him. At the beginning of the novel, he questions whether he will emerge as the hero of his own story. In this genre, however, the central character's journey from adolescence to adulthood firmly establishes them as the protagonist and hero. The structure of a bildungsroman typically involves a progression from naïve innocence and inexperience through various trials and lessons, culminating in a more mature understanding of the world and a solid sense of self-confidence. In David Copperfield, despite the blend of sweetness and corruption in his world, David himself remains uncorrupted. He may be misled at times, such as in his trust of Steerforth, but he ultimately learns and grows. The mature narrator offers an adult perspective on the novel’s characters, sharing the reader's empathy for the young David’s hardships and satisfaction when justice is served. For instance, the narrator expresses sorrow over David's mistreatment and joy when villains like Uriah Heep receive their comeuppance, and good-hearted characters such as the Peggottys and the Micawbers find happiness in their new lives in Australia. Simultaneously, the narrator presents the world through the eyes of a child, engaging younger readers by telling the story of a hero they can relate to.

Charles Dickens attempted to write his autobiography but found that some early life experiences were too painful to recount in a straightforward manner. David Copperfield, at least in part, serves as a fictionalized retelling of these difficult episodes. Dickens excelled in portraying the psychological depth of a child's and young man's mind with unmatched skill. Copperfield relies on the recollections of others to narrate his birth and early childhood years. Dickens had a keen eye for observing the world around him from a young age and possessed a strong memory of his life's events. This trait is evident in David Copperfield as well. Dickens' imagination, combined with his memories of that period, vividly recaptures not only the physical settings of early events but also their accompanying emotions. This nostalgic quality imbues the initial chapters of David Copperfield with a magical charm often praised by readers.

Though Dickens likely never encountered the term bildungsroman, he structures his novel in a manner consistent with classical works in that genre. These stories typically trace an individual's journey from childhood to successful adulthood, emphasizing the challenges faced and overcome during youth. Early on, characters often experience difficulties with their parents. Born fatherless and orphaned before his teenage years, David Copperfield encounters a series of father figures. His perspective is the sole viewpoint in the novel. David endures mistreatment from the Murdstones, who attempt to keep him subjugated. At Salem House, the older Steerforth protects David from Creakle's severe cruelty. David also boards with the Micawber family while working at Murdstone and Grimby's warehouse. Despite their financial instability, Mr. Micawber, in particular, injects humor into David's otherwise bleak circumstances. Aunt Betsy Trotwood and her companion, Mr. Dick, eventually provide David with the security and affection he longs for. Aunt Betsy's strong personality even allows her to serve as a paternal figure. Following his adoption by her, David's life takes a positive turn. His time at Dr. Strong's school is marked by peace and happiness. Living with the Wickfields, David is immediately captivated by Agnes Wickfield, whom Dickens intended from the start to be the novel's heroine. However, future complications are hinted at by Mr. Wickfield's alcoholism and the presence of Uriah Heep. With his education complete, David must establish his career. He becomes an apprentice at the firm of Spenlow and Jorkins, where he meets Dora Spenlow, whom he believes to be his true love. Dickens masterfully portrays the ecstatic emotions of young love and the all-consuming nature of early romance. However, marriage to Dora turns out to be a mistake, though David strives to make it work. He moves toward his true calling, learning shorthand and becoming a parliamentary reporter. David then starts writing stories and eventually becomes a novelist. These episodes seamlessly blend Dickens' own experiences with fiction. Notably, Dickens did not marry Maria Beadnell, the inspiration for Dora's character.

Uriah Heep's villainy is exposed, and his threat to Agnes is neutralized. Dora passes away, and David's idol, Steerforth, who betrayed him by eloping with Little Em'ly, drowns after abandoning her when his passion wanes. Copperfield learns painful lessons about love and his own nature. He spends three years wandering through Italy and Switzerland in despair, ultimately coming to terms with his "undisciplined heart" in Switzerland. Upon returning home, he discovers his true love in Agnes. He enjoys a happy marriage and a successful career, reflecting on his life from this vantage point. Not all bildungsromans end happily, and a decade later, Dickens writes one that nearly reverses the story of David Copperfield.

Writing this novel presented Dickens with fewer challenges than almost any of his other works. At the height of his abilities as a novelist, he produced some great books in the future, but in some ways, he never surpassed David Copperfield. He had developed a mature style that significantly improved over his earlier works. His contemporary and occasional rival, William Makepeace Thackeray, believed that Dickens had refined his style by imitating Vanity Fair. He was "foregoing the use of fine words" and trimming some of the excesses that marked his early writing. This appears to be true. Dickens had mastered the art of using fewer words, especially in the somber scenes. The death of Dora is described without the sentimental indulgences found in the death of Paul Dombey in Dombey and Son and Little Nell in The Old Curiosity Shop.

That face so full of pity and grief, that rain of tears, that awful mute appeal to me, that solemn hand upraised to heaven.
"Agnes?"
It is over. Darkness comes before my eyes; and, for a time, all things are blotted out of my remembrance.

Parts of this chapter are almost Hemingwayesque. While Dickens has not eliminated all passages of tearful sentimentality, some passages dealing with the prostitute Martha Endell, who drags herself through the streets of London and threatens suicide in the Thames, seem wildly exaggerated to modern readers. Little Em'ly, after her affair with James Steerforth, writes tearful letters and declares herself beyond redemption. Both women eventually go to Australia with Dan'l Peggotty and start new lives.

In David Copperfield, a notable stylistic element is the use of "Retrospects," which occur four times throughout the novel. In these sections, David pauses his narrative to reflect on his and other characters' developments. He likens his life up to the end of his school days to "flowing water" and describes himself as "hovering above those days, in a half-sleeping and half-waking dream." David acknowledges that his memories of the past sometimes seem unreal. During this period, he experiences two youthful loves and a confrontation with a bully. In "Another Retrospect," David muses, "Once again let me pause upon a memorable period in my life," and sees himself as a "shadow" in retrospect. He recalls this time as flowing through the seasons, moving toward the sea. At twenty-one, he has mastered shorthand and is reporting on Parliament for a morning newspaper. He marries Dora, but all these events now seem like "phantoms" to him. By then, he has become a legal adult. Chapter LIII, titled "Another Retrospect," details the death of his child-wife Dora, with Agnes acting as a comforting presence. Dora's death temporarily halts the passage of time. In "A Last Retrospect," the briefest of the four, David concludes his autobiographical narrative and provides updates on significant people in his life. His marriage to Agnes brings him fulfillment and a complete sense of self.

David Copperfield not only masters shorthand but also becomes a master of language. Autobiography, by its nature, is a verbal achievement. David recalls certain events with remarkable detail, and some critics have noted that parts of this novel foreshadow Proust. For instance, religious prints David saw in Mr. Peggotty's boathouse instantly evoke the entire interior of that home when he sees them again. Similarly, the name Yarmouth always reminds him of "a certain Sunday morning on the beach, the bells ringing of church, little Em'ly leaning on my shoulder, Ham lazily dropping stones into the water, and the sun, away at sea, just breaking through the heavy mist...." Peggotty is forever linked in his memory with her workbox, which has a picture of St. Paul's Cathedral on its cover. These recollections are from the joyful days before the Murdstones entered his life.

The sea emerges as a powerful motif in all of Dickens' novels following Dombey and Son (1846-48). Life is depicted as a river flowing towards the sea, symbolizing death. According to local superstition, Mr. Barkis, Peggotty's husband, passes away when the tide recedes. The sea represents a mysterious and occasionally destructive force. One of the novel's climactic moments is the great storm that devastates Yarmouth, referred to as "Tempest." "I will try to write it down. I do not recall it, but see it done; for it happens again before me." Both Ham and Steerforth fall victim to the fierce wind and water. A virtuous young man and a selfish egotist meet the same fate. Ham was supposed to marry Little Em'ly before Steerforth seduced and ran away with her. Ham dies attempting to save Steerforth, who is desperately clinging to the mast of a sinking ship. This event haunts Copperfield's nightmares for the rest of his life, and the mention of the seashore revives the memory of the violent storm. The tempest has obliterated much of what was significant in his past—Ham, Steerforth, and even Dan'l Peggotty's boathouse. It may seem too coincidental that the waves wash Steerforth ashore, finally resting at David's feet. In a familiar posture, his head rests on his arm, reminiscent of David's memory of him sleeping during their days at Salem House. Despite everything, David continues to love and admire Steerforth, albeit for the potential he once had, not the seducer he ultimately became.

Dickens might have been influenced by Thomas Carlyle's Sartor Resartus when he depicts David wandering through Italy and Switzerland in such deep despair that he barely notices the ancient monuments around him. This type of dark period is a common theme in many Victorian works, such as Tennyson's In Memoriam and the later autobiographies of John Stuart Mill and John Henry Newman. In Sartor Resartus, Carlyle describes an emotional crisis he terms the "Everlasting No," a state of profound depression. Copperfield narrates his own "Everlasting No" in the chapter titled "Absence." David writes, "Listlessness to everything but brooding sorrow was the night that fell on my undisciplined heart." With Dora and Steerforth gone, other friends now in Australia, he is left alone with bitter memories and the belief that his life and everything tied to it is a meaningless failure. His willpower is unable to combat this overwhelming sense of futility. Neither Dickens nor his protagonist seeks solace in conventional religion during these crises. However, in the Swiss Alps, a newfound appreciation of their beauty marks a turning point for David. In a passage reminiscent of Wordsworth, as he descends into a valley, the voices of singing shepherds seem to speak to him. The grandeur and majesty of the scenery have been working on his consciousness, and he becomes aware that "great Nature spoke to me," igniting a spark of hope in his desolate spirit. This moment could be seen as another example of the pathetic fallacy that Dickens employs in his other novels, such as in Dombey and Son, where little Paul hears the sea calling him. The English Romantics believed in the ability to commune with Nature, which they saw as a nurturing force capable of healing. David's transition to what Carlyle describes as "The Everlasting Aye" has begun. He lies on the grass and weeps " . . . as I had not yet wept since Dora died!"

"Absence" is the most lyrical chapter in David Copperfield, showcasing Dickens's versatility in prose styling. This versatility is also evident in the "Retrospect Chapters." David's life is beginning to come into focus again. In the village where he descends, letters await him. A letter from Agnes, reaffirming her faith in him, further aids his healing process. She assures him that his profound grief will not lead to endless sorrow but will instead become a source of new strength. His love for her deepens.

Many critics, however, regard Agnes as one of the novel's weaknesses. Critic Robert R. Garnet recently argued that her character serves more as a symbol in the book than as a believable, flesh-and-blood woman. She appears perfect in every way from childhood onwards, resembling the image Goethe used to conclude the second half of his Faust: "The Eternal-Feminine/Lures us to perfection." Agnes is depicted as a sort of English Madonna with a spiritual purity that leaves David in awe. In his review, George Orwell described her as "the real legless angel of Victorian romance." Indeed, she represents Dickensian saintliness, an idealization, and serves as a spiritual guide to Copperfield.

Initially, David idolizes Steerforth, viewing him as a model of nobility. However, Steerforth is a Byronic figure, born skeptical and cynical, and emulating him would lead to disaster. In contrast, Agnes helps David rise to her level of virtue, although he must first tame his "undisciplined heart" to truly be with her. Her image constantly urges him upward in his imagination, as seen when she silently indicates Dora's death. As Chapter XL concludes, the memory of her "pointing upward" stays with him, and he hopes to join her in heaven one day to declare his love. Agnes, who has loved him all her life, marries him, and they have three children. In the novel's final image, even at the end of his life, she remains "near me, pointing upward."

David Copperfield often recalls a phrase used by Dr. Strong's young wife, Annie, when she confessed a brief infatuation with her cousin Maldon. She described it as ". . . the first mistaken impulse of my undisciplined heart." Although she did not wrong her husband, some critics view the scene as an example of the excessive sentimentality that is frequent in Dickens' work. However, David recognizes that his own heart is similarly undisciplined. Learning to control his emotions has been a crucial part of his self-realization and the successful conclusion of his bildungsroman. With the maturity he has gained through his life with Agnes, David sees himself as successful both in life and in his chosen profession as a writer.

In David Copperfield, Dickens is less focused on "the condition of England question," a term coined by Thomas Carlyle to describe Dickens' interest in the issues of contemporary English society. The overall tone of David Copperfield and Great Expectations is quite different from that of Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby, and Dombey and Son, which preceded David Copperfield, and from Bleak House and Little Dorrit, which followed it. This bildungsroman allows Dickens to delve into his own personality, tracing its origins and growth. However, social issues do make an appearance in the novel. Salem House Academy is depicted as a school with sadistic schoolmasters, similar to the Yorkshire schools in Nicholas Nickleby. Dr. Strong's school in Canterbury appears to be an exception rather than the norm in early nineteenth-century England. Nevertheless, Dickens portrays Salem House and the students' experiences there without launching into diatribes against the evident abuses of such an institution.

Dickens views the evils of prostitution as a consequence of a male-dominated society. Characters like Martha Endell and Little Em'ly are victims of this society, but there is no explicit commentary on the evils of prostitution itself.

While covering the activities of Parliament, Dickens developed a disdainful attitude toward that branch of the English government and the legal profession in general. He satirizes Doctors' Commons, an amalgamation of various courts including the Admiralty and the Prerogative Office, where wills were registered and filed—Mr. Spenlow's area of expertise. Spenlow is convinced of the significance of his profession, claiming that the Commons are essential to English civilization: "Touch the Commons and down goes the nation." This satire is mostly limited to this part of the novel and is fairly mild. Copperfield finds the proceedings in the Commons amusing rather than infuriating. His depiction of the frantic efforts of some lawyers to attract clients is comical, akin to the worst examples of modern-day ambulance chasing.

Emigration was a significant solution for many people of the era, offering opportunities that were unavailable in England. Annie Strong's cousin, Mr. Jack Maldon, goes to India to seek his fortune but returns to live off the Doctor's charity. Australia served as a refuge for those who had disgraced themselves at home, including women like Martha Endell and Little Em'ly. Wilkins Micawber, after numerous failed attempts to make a name for himself, emigrates to Australia, becomes a journalist, and eventually a magistrate. This surprising turn of events may be attributed to Dickens' penchant for giving his characters happy endings, in line with his love of fairy tales—"They lived happily ever after." Dan'l Peggotty takes Martha and Em'ly to Australia and becomes a prosperous farmer, a reward for his virtuous life.

The most cutting satire is perhaps directed at the model prison system modeled after Pentonville. In this system, inmates lived in complete isolation. Dickens had toured the Eastern Penitentiary in Philadelphia in March 1842, and he was deeply disturbed by the psychological impact of solitary confinement. The same Mr. Creakle, who was once the headmaster of Salem House, oversaw this model prison. Among Creakle's exemplary inmates were the two ultimate hypocrites: Mr. Lattimer, the seemingly "respectable" valet of James Steerforth who aided in the exploitation of Little Em'ly, and Uriah Heep. Both prisoners delivered pre-written statements that showed no genuine signs of reformation, but rather highlighted how easily hypocrisy could fool the not-so-intelligent Creakle.

• 1850s: The lower classes are densely packed into English cities, working without any labor protections and feeling hopeless about escaping poverty. There are no social services available to assist them.

  Today: England offers social programs like national health insurance and subsidized housing, which help improve the living conditions of the lower class.

• 1850s: Voices of protest arise against the working-class conditions, including a massive Chartist demonstration in London in 1848. Protestors present a petition to Parliament advocating for working-class rights, signed by over two million people.

  Today: Early twenty-first-century protests in England focus on the Iraq war, featuring anti-war marches and efforts to remove Prime Minister Tony Blair from the Labour Party due to his support of President Bush’s war policies.

• 1850s: This era marks the peak of Victorianism in England, characterized by strict social codes among the middle and upper classes, even influencing their vocabulary. For instance, it is deemed improper to say "leg" in mixed company; "limb" is preferred.

  Today: England is home to various languages and dialects, from "posh" English spoken by the upper classes to regional dialects and Punjabi, the primary language of many Pakistani immigrants. Slang and profanity are now common elements of everyday English.

Ten years after finishing David Copperfield, Dickens penned his second bildungsroman, Great Expectations (1860-61). Despite its title, this novel lacks much optimism. The protagonist, Pip (Phillip Pirrip), bears a closer resemblance to Dickens himself than David Copperfield does. Unlike the patient and easy-going David, Pip is impatient and becomes a snob, feeling ashamed that his benefactor, Magwitch, is an escaped convict. Another orphan character created by Dickens is Oliver Twist, whose story is the focus of Dickens' third novel about a child entangled in London's underworld. Many key characters in Dickens' major novels are either orphans or children raised by a single parent, such as Steerforth in David Copperfield.

In 1935, MGM produced a film adaptation of David Copperfield with an all-star cast, including Lionel Barrymore, W. C. Fields, Edna May Oliver, and Basil Rathbone. Fields shines as Wilkins Micawber, a role he was seemingly destined to play. A television adaptation was filmed in England in 1970 but does not measure up to the earlier movie in quality. In 1999, the BBC created another adaptation for Masterpiece Theater.

A more recent bildungsroman is E. L. Doctorow's Billy Bathgate, which depicts a street kid in 1930s New York. Billy becomes involved with Dutch Schultz, a notorious gang leader from the Prohibition era. The 1991 film adaptation is excellent, featuring Dustin Hoffman as Schultz.

Since 1911, the novel has been adapted into numerous television and film versions. One notable adaptation, released on DVD in 2006, is a television series produced in 2000 featuring Hugh Dancy as David.

There are also multiple abridged and unabridged audio versions of the novel. In 1977, Books on Tape released a popular, full-length cassette audio version.

Ackroyd, Peter. Dickens. London, England: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1990. Ackroyd critiques John Forster's first biography for being dull in certain parts and finds Edgar Johnson's 1952 biography often misguided. To address this, Ackroyd presents all known facts about Dickens and brings his narrative to life with a "Prologue" that describes the reactions in England and America following Dickens' death. The book also includes chapters featuring a fictional interview with Dickens during his lifetime, a conversation involving Dickens, T. S. Eliot, Oscar Wilde, and Thomas Chatterson, and an interview with Ackroyd himself discussing the creation of the biography. A comprehensive and engaging read.

Buckley, Jerome Hamilton. Season of Youth: The Bildungsroman from Dickens to Golding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974. This book offers an extensive study of the Bildungsroman genre, tracing its origins in Europe and examining the major British authors who have contributed to it.

Ford, George H., and Lauriat Lane Jr. The Dickens Critics. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972. This is a reprint of a book originally published by Cornell University Press in 1961. It includes essays by Dickens' contemporaries such as Poe, Henry James, and John Ruskin, extending into the modern era. It features a notable essay by George H. Ford on David Copperfield.

Frank, Lawrence. Charles Dickens and the Romantic Self. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. This book offers a Freudian analysis of Dickens. Frank positions Dickens between Romantic autobiographical writers like Jean Jacques Rousseau, Thomas de Quincy, and Freud. He describes David Copperfield as a "poet of memory" and an heir to Rousseau and de Quincy, adding that "Freud writes with both Rousseau and Dickens in mind."

Garnett, Robert R. "Why not Sophy? Desire and Agnes in David Copperfield." Dickens Quarterly, (spring 1998): 213-231. Critics have often been unkind to the character of Agnes, with Michael Slater calling her "a nullity" and "lifeless." However, Dickens' memoranda for the fifth installment of the book refers to her as "the real heroine." In Agnes, Dickens created an ideal for Copperfield to aspire to in order to fully realize himself.

House, Humphrey. The Dickens World. London: Oxford University Press, 1941. An essential source for background information on Dickens and his time period.

Johnson, Edgar. Charles Dickens: His Tragedy and Triumph. Two volumes. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1952. This is the first significant modern biography of Dickens, offering insightful critiques of his major works. Chapter Six of Volume Two, "His Favorite Child," provides an excellent commentary on David Copperfield.

Kaplan, Fred. Dickens: A Biography. New York: William Morrow & Company, 1988. This biography is somewhat more concise than those by Johnson and Ackroyd but offers a penetrating analysis of David Copperfield in Chapter Eight.

Monod, Sylvere. Dickens the Novelist. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968. Originally a doctoral thesis from the Sorbonne in Paris, this book provides a detailed analysis of Dickens as a writer, challenging the notion that he lacked craftsmanship. David Copperfield is highlighted as the novel that best demonstrates Dickens' literary skill. It is considered the finest analysis of Dickens' writing available today.

Storey, Graham. David Copperfield: Interweaving Truth and Fiction. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1991. Storey, an editor of the Pilgrim Edition of Dickens' Letters, authored this book. As part of the Twayne Masterworks Series, it succinctly addresses the key aspects of Dickens' life, achievements, and the historical context of his works.

Sources
Altick, Richard D., Victorian People and Ideas, Norton, 1973, pp. 117, 166.

Arnold, Matthew, “Mr. Creakle and the Irish,” in David Copperfield, Norton Critical Edition, edited by Jerome H. Buckley, Norton, 1990, pp. 783-785; originally published in Irish Essays, Smith Elder, 1882.

Bloom, Harold, Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds, Warner Books, 2002, pp. 776-777.

Brown, E. K., “The Art of ‘The Crowded Novel,’” in David Copperfield, Norton Critical Edition, edited by Jerome H. Buckley, Norton, 1990, pp. 790-794; originally published in Yale Review, N.S. 37, 1948.

Dickens, Charles, David Copperfield, Norton Critical Edition, Norton, 1990.

Engel, Monroe, “The Theme of David Copperfield,” in David Copperfield, Norton Critical Edition, edited by Jerome H. Buckley, Norton, 1990, p. 808; originally published in The Maturity of Dickens, Harvard University Press, 1959.

Hornback, Bert G., “David’s Vocation as Novelist: Frustration and Resolution in David Copperfield,” in David Copperfield, Norton Critical Edition, edited by Jerome H. Buckley, Norton, 1990, p. 836; originally published in Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900, Vol. 8, 1968.

Further Reading
Kaplan, Fred, Dickens: A Biography, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. This acclaimed biography delves into the connections between Dickens’s personal life and his work, particularly his childhood experiences. Kaplan also sheds light on Dickens’s self-perception and how others viewed him as both an artist and a social reformer.

Myers, Margaret, “The Lost Self: Gender in David Copperfield,” in Gender Studies: New Directions in Feminist Criticism, edited by Judith Spector, Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1986, pp. 120–132. Myers argues that David develops a strong sense of self only after integrating feminine aspects into his masculine personality.

Needham, Gwendolyn B., “The Undisciplined Heart of David Copperfield,” in Nineteenth-Century Fiction, Vol. 9, No. 2, September 1954, pp. 81–107. Needham investigates David’s emotional growth and its connection to the novel’s theme and structure.

Stone, Harry, “Fairy Tales and Ogres: Dickens’ Imagination and David Copperfield,” in Criticism, Vol. 6, 1954, pp. 324–330. Stone explores Dickens’s imaginative use of fairy tales in the novel, focusing on the character development of Betsey Trotwood in the clothes shop scene, and highlighting the complexity of David’s reactions to his experiences.