Karl Marx's groundbreaking work, Das Kapital, laid the foundation for the rise of communism as a powerful political movement across the globe. The economic disparities it highlighted inspired a proletarian revolution, heavily influenced by his analysis. Decades later, these ideas would prove pivotal in the Russian Revolution, occurring long after Marx's passing.

The Evolution of Marx's Revolutionary Thought

Marx's earlier works, such as the Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei (1848), co-authored with Friedrich Engels and known in English as The Communist Manifesto (1850), had already sown the seeds of revolution. While the Manifesto was a call to action and a passionate political statement, Das Kapital sought to ground communism in a scientifically defensible theory of political economy. This work is not just a passionate manifesto; it is a scholarly treatise born of extensive research and contemplation, still challenging economists today. The contrasting nature of these works reflects the dichotomy within the communist movement itself – the intellectuals leading the laborers, and rational argument coexisting with revolutionary violence.

Class Struggle and Economic Theory

The Communist Manifesto posits that the history of society is essentially a history of class struggles, evolving into a conflict primarily between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. As Marx and Engels assert, societal injustices stem from the economic power the bourgeoisie wield over the proletariat, inevitably leading to proletarian uprising and the establishment of a classless society under proletarian dictatorship. In Das Kapital, Marx adopts a dialectical method, influenced by Hegel, yet distinct in its application. Marx describes his dialectic as the "direct opposite" of Hegel’s, intending to turn the "mystical shell" into a "rational kernel." This method examines contradictions within entities to form a comprehensive understanding, recognizing both the current state and its inherent potential decay.

Commodities, Labor, and Value

Marx commences Das Kapital with an analysis of commodities and money, differentiating between "use value" and "exchange value." The latter is determined by the labor necessary to produce a commodity: "that which determines the magnitude of the value of any article is the amount of labour socially necessary, or the labour-time socially necessary for its production." In Marx's view, money arises from using a special commodity as a universal measure of value, linking diverse labor products. It is not that money renders commodities comparable; rather, their comparability through human labor enables money to function as a value measure.

The Essence of Capital and Surplus Value

Capital emerges through the circulation of commodities, with money being its initial form. Capital cannot exist without altering value; if money buys a commodity only to sell at the original price, no profit or capital is generated. Surplus value arises when a capitalist buys labor power, using it to produce goods. Ownership of the production materials grants ownership of the end product. The product, now imbued with use value, is intended not for the capitalist’s use but for sale at a profit. This surplus value indicates an exploitation of labor, as capitalists strive to make labor costs less than the value derived from that labor.

Increasing Surplus and Division of Labor

To boost surplus value, capitalists enhance labor productivity without shortening the workday, thus maintaining commodity prices. One strategy involves deploying many workers, each assigned specialized tasks. This division of labor allows for greater efficiency at reduced labor costs, as capitalists pay for individual labor power but accrue collective value from cooperative effort.

Machinery and its Role in Capitalism

Contrary to popular belief, Marx argues that machinery is not introduced to ease labor but to increase production efficiency and surplus value. Machines cheapen commodities and extend the portion of the workday...