USSR with Stalin. Despite threats to his wife and child, Bukharin recanted his confession to specific crimes during the trial and maintained his innocence until he, too, was executed.

The Great Terror had enduring effects on the Soviet regime. It established a pattern of dictatorial and oppressive totalitarianism that persisted even after Stalin's death in 1953. Although later Soviet leaders did not reach the same extremes, the oppressive infrastructure remained. In 1956, Nikita Khrushchev and other leaders condemned Stalin's reign of terror, but many of them had been active participants, and the secret police continued to suppress opposition.

The Comintern
In 1919, during the Bolshevik Revolution, Communist Party leaders convened in Moscow to establish the “Communist International” or “Comintern,” aimed at promoting a global communist revolution. Funded and directed by the Soviet government, the Comintern quickly became a tool for the USSR to control Communist Parties in other nations, with Moscow leaders actively pursuing a global agenda throughout the 1920s.

Under Stalin's leadership, however, the Comintern's commitment to supporting foreign revolutions waned. The withdrawal of financial and advisory support to countries like Germany and Spain had severe repercussions for Party members in those regions. Nicolai Bukharin chaired the Comintern from 1919 to 1929 but abandoned its internationalist agenda by the 1930s as Stalin shifted focus to isolationism.

Rational Arguments
To convincingly critique the Communist focus on extreme rationality and the compulsion to act, Koestler uses an exceptionally thorough rational approach. Essentially, he adopts the Party’s own strategy to criticize its policies. Rubashov is an effective voice for the novel's argument because he follows rationality to its extreme, finds it absurd, and is left with the irrational "grammatical fiction."

The initial two hearings can be viewed as the culmination of a composed rational process, resulting in Rubashov’s confession, which appears reasonable. However, as Gletkin's methods reveal, Rubashov hasn’t gone far enough. Rational thinking leads him to the next hearing, which becomes increasingly absurd in its conclusions yet remains consistent with the previous logical style. Ultimately, Koestler’s rigorous rational prose demonstrates that rational argument alone is not a sufficient moral "ballast," a point only evident after such a compelling logical progression.

Religious Symbolism
Rubashov is an atheist and the Communist Party is staunchly secular, yet religious symbolism pervades the text, highlighting Koestler’s political and psychological themes. Rubashov’s patronymic, "Salmanovitch," reflects his Jewish heritage, which gains significance before his execution, as he references Moses and the "Promised Land." However, Christian symbolism is most consistent throughout the book, often identifying Rubashov with Christ. Rubashov recalls a Christian phrase during his arrest; his habit of rubbing his glasses on his sleeve resembles praying with a rosary; the image of the outstretched hands of the Pietà dominates his dreams and reflections; No. 406 consistently taps Christian verses to him each morning; and Rubashov’s trial and execution, where he is innocent of specific crimes but guilty of general opposition, parallels the trial and martyrdom of Christ.

These elements position Rubashov as a savior figure, yet one without faith in his own beliefs. Shortly before his death, Rubashov reflects, "But when he asked himself, For what are you actually dying? he found no answer.” Koestler may be using religious symbolism ironically to criticize party policy, to emphasize that Stalinism resembles a religion, or possibly both.

In Arthur Koestler's novel, Darkness at Noon, the setting plays a crucial role in underscoring the themes of confinement, oppression, and ideological conflict. Through a series of vivid and contrasting places, the reflections of Rubashov, the protagonist, paint a picture of a world caught between political tyranny and personal disillusionment. Each location in the narrative serves as a backdrop to explore the psychological and social dimensions of life under a totalitarian regime.

Prison

The prison where Rubashov finds himself confined is a grim Soviet detention center, a stark embodiment of the regime's oppressive nature. Its dark, labyrinthine corridors are a world unto themselves, cut off from the changing seasons outside. Inside, the environment is relentlessly harsh; cells are little more than barren boxes, each equipped with a basin, a cot, and a bucket. The spy-holes in the thick doors allow guards to watch silently, reinforcing the ever-present surveillance characteristic of totalitarian control.

This prison is more than a place of physical confinement; it is a metaphor for the communist dystopia. Life inside is stripped of humanity and dignity, with brutality lurking in every corner. Underneath the prison, sinister rooms await, where beatings and torturous steam baths compel confessions to crimes never committed. The execution of prisoners is a ritualistic affair, with sinister precision masked by a façade of bureaucratic normalcy.

Rubashov’s experiences within his cell, number 404, highlight the isolation and despair intrinsic to the setting. Initially enveloped in silence, he gradually picks up on the coded taps of other inmates, a fragile thread of communication in an otherwise mute world. Through his barred window, glimpses of the courtyard remind him of the outside world, while the prison's punishing routine continues unabated. The monotony is occasionally broken by grim events, such as the execution march of Bogrov, a naval hero, underscoring the systemic cruelty inherent in the institution.

The interrogation office of Warden Ivanov, where Rubashov is questioned, is a microcosm of the larger ideological struggle. The stark setting, with its cluttered desks and missing photograph of party officials, reflects the regime's moral void. Under the harsh spotlight of Gletkin’s relentless questioning, Rubashov’s internal conflicts are laid bare, mirroring the oppressive scrutiny of the state.

Art Museum

In sharp contrast to the oppressive prison, Rubashov recalls his arrest in a German art museum, a place imbued with cultural richness and historical depth. Surrounded by paintings of voluptuous nudes, this setting symbolizes a world of indulgence and aesthetic beauty. Yet, the presence of a pen-and-ink drawing of the Madonna's hands extends a gesture towards the world's needy, providing a stark moral counterpoint to the hedonistic art.

This juxtaposition highlights the political and personal turmoil faced by Rubashov. The arrest by the Gestapo, set against this backdrop, marks a pivotal moment in his life, one that culminates in torture and marks him indelibly. His eventual return to Russia, a hero following the Soviet-German nonaggression pact, underscores the complex interplay of political alliances and personal survival.

Belgian Port City

Another of Rubashov’s evocative memories takes place in a Belgian port city, a setting that brims with distinct sensory details. The harbor's smells and the narrow streets, where life assumes a gritty authenticity, contrast sharply with the ideological rigidity of his mission. Inside a nondescript meeting room, walls plastered with election posters and leaflets on plank tables speak to the clandestine nature of the communist activities.

This setting illustrates a critical juncture in Rubashov’s political journey. When he orders union members to unload Russian ships laden with supplies for Germany, their refusal and subsequent expulsion from the party highlight the shifting loyalties and ideological conflicts central to the narrative.

Rubashov’s Apartment

Returning to Moscow, Rubashov's apartment captures the stark realities of life under Soviet rule. This shabby residence, invaded by armed soldiers during his arrest, serves as a tangible link to his past and the ideological upheavals affecting his present. The journey from his apartment to the prison underscores the physical and existential transitions facing him.

Even after his execution, the apartment remains a testament to his enduring influence. Vassilij, the building's porter, and his daughter continue to occupy the space, secretly treasuring Rubashov's memory. The hidden photograph of Rubashov and the forbidden Bible speak to the undercurrents of resistance and the persistent hope for ideological change.

Through these varied settings, Darkness at Noon deftly explores the complexities of the human spirit amidst the oppressive machinery of totalitarianism, offering a poignant reflection on the power of place to shape and reflect personal and political realities.

• 1930s: The USSR emerges as the first Communist state globally, setting the stage for a half-century-long Cold War with the United States.

  Today: Russia has transitioned to a capitalist democracy with a freely elected Federal Assembly. The Berlin Wall, which separated communist East Germany from capitalist West Germany, fell in 1989, and the USSR officially disbanded in 1991.

• 1930s: The Russian economy struggles to recover post-Revolution, leading to shortages of nearly all products and widespread suffering.

  Today: Since the fall of Communism, the Russian economy has been in decline, plagued by organized crime and significant ruble devaluation.

• 1930s: Prominent political figures from the Bolshevik Revolution are tried and executed on charges of industrial sabotage and other conspiracies.

  Today: The Russian government is prosecuting numerous wealthy and influential tycoons, many with political aspirations, for tax evasion and fraud.

• 1930s: During his purges, Stalin demands each general submit a list dividing their officers into three groups: one-third to be promoted, one-third to be sent to Siberia, and one-third to be executed. Seventy percent of the Army Officer Corps is arrested during this period.

  Today: The Russian military is underfunded and strained by the conflict with Chechen rebels, yet Russia maintains the second most powerful nuclear arsenal globally.

Darkness at Noon made its Broadway debut in 1951 through a stage adaptation by Sidney Kingsley.

Sources
Cesarani, David. Arthur Koestler: The Homeless Mind. William Heinemann, 1998.

Cohen, Stephen. Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938. Wildwood House, 1974, pp. 372–80.

Hamilton, Iain. Koestler: A Biography. Martin Secker & Warburg, 1982, pp. 68–71.

Koestler, Arthur. Darkness at Noon, translated by Daphne Hardy, 1940; reprinted, 1965.

Orwell, George. “Arthur Koestler,” in Arthur Koestler: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Murray A. Sperber. Prentice-Hall, 1977, pp. 13–24; originally published in 1944.

———. Review of Darkness at Noon, in Koestler: A Biography, edited by Iain Hamilton. Martin Secker & Warburg, 1982, p. 69; originally published in New Statesman.

Schwarz, Solomon M. The Russian Revolution of 1905: The Workers’ Movement and the Formation of Bolshevism and Menshevism. University of Chicago Press, 1967, p. 29.

Further Reading
Berdyaev, Nicolas. The Origin of Russian Communism, translated by R. M. French. Robert Maclehose, 1937. Berdyaev discusses the early development of the Communist Party and the rise of Stalin’s dictatorship.

Calder, Jenni. Chronicles of Conscience: A Study of George Orwell and Arthur Koestler. University of Pittsburgh Press, 1968. Calder examines the works of two of the most significant twentieth-century writers on totalitarianism.

Levene, Mark. Arthur Koestler. Frederick Ungar Publishing, 1984. Levene’s literary biography of Koestler situates Darkness at Noon within the context of the author’s life and the political environment of the era.

Pearson, Sidney A. Arthur Koestler. G. K. Hall, 1978. Chapter four of Pearson’s book offers a clear and insightful analysis of the main themes and structural elements of Koestler’s novel.

Tucker, Robert C., and Stephen F. Cohen, eds. The Great Purge Trial. Grosset & Dunlap, 1965. This book, based on the transcript of the Moscow Show Trials, serves as an important resource for understanding the events of the 1938 trial.