III, which is virtually a providential event. Shakespeare’s invocation of such favorable associations here underscores the nationalist tone of the play; but his use of Milford Haven also ensures that some of the action will take place in Wales, which has mythic associations with Arthurian legend and with the prophecies of Merlin as well as with the poetry of numerous oracular bards.

Cymbeline explores a theme that resonates with both contemporary and Shakespearean audiences: nationalism. The play is situated in the ancient, pre-Christian era when the Roman Empire was thriving, and England, or Britain, was a collection of feudal territories with distinct tribal allegiances. During Julius Caesar's rule, Roman soldiers occupied England but eventually withdrew due to the island's isolation and the relentless effort required to manage Celtic insurgencies, which strained Roman resources. Although Rome continued to regard England as a colony and demanded tribute—a form of monetary tax—King Cymbeline's refusal to pay this tribute is the central conflict in Shakespeare's narrative.

Shakespeare penned Cymbeline in the early seventeenth century, a period when England was beginning to assert itself as an emerging empire, poised to rival Rome. This era marked the onset of English colonization and a flourishing of English arts and literature, fostering a sense of national pride (nationalism). The play conveys the impression that Cymbeline governs a unified nation, a political reality that only materialized in the late fifteenth century. In Shakespeare's time, England held the Roman civilization in high esteem and envisioned itself as the next great empire. This sentiment is reflected in the play, not only through Cymbeline's defiance in paying tribute but also in the portrayal of the English characters' superior nobility compared to their Roman counterparts.

Although Cymbeline mentions at the play's conclusion that he was previously persuaded by the queen to stop paying tribute to Rome, the narrative suggests that his refusal had widespread support. When Philario, Posthumus's Italian host, expresses his belief that England will eventually pay the tribute, Posthumus counters, asserting that England would rather fight than bow to Rome. He insists that England's military prowess and unified determination have been underestimated. When Caius Lucius leaves Cymbeline's palace to report the refusal of Augustus's demand, Cymbeline himself states, "Our subjects, sir, / Will not endure [Augustus's] yoke" (III.v.4-5). Additionally, when the queen laments Caius Lucius's displeased departure, Cloten remarks, "’Tis all the better, / Your valiant Britons have their wishes in it" (III.v.19-20). After the English soldiers triumph over the Romans, proving their equal or superior capabilities, Cymbeline graciously agrees to pay the tribute. This conflict was never about money; it was about English pride. Even Jupiter, the supreme god of the Romans, begrudgingly acknowledges England's equality with Rome. In the tablet he leaves with Posthumus, Jupiter reveals that only when the English royal family is reunited will Britain prosper in peace and abundance (V.v.441-42). The Roman soothsayer Philarmonus interprets this prophecy as the union of "Th' imperial Caesar" and "the radiant Cymbeline, / Which shines here in the west" (V.v.474-76). The message is clear: England has proven itself worthy to be Rome's successor.

Compared to the Roman characters, the English characters in the play are portrayed as more noble. Jachimo is depicted as an arrogant braggart, the type of Italian courtier whom Shakespeare and his contemporaries loved to mock for their decadence and arrogance. He believes he can win any woman he desires, including Imogen, whom Posthumus describes as unquestionably chaste. However, Jachimo fails to compromise Imogen's virtue, as she embodies the ideal "image" of womanhood, making women from other nations seem inferior by comparison. Jachimo admits this in his lengthy confession to Cymbeline in the final scene, referring to Imogen as "That paragon, thy daughter" (V.v.147). Although Jachimo initially outsmarts Posthumus, Posthumus ultimately proves superior. In battle, the disguised Posthumus easily defeats and disarms Jachimo, leaving the Italian courtier to marvel at the strength of England's aristocrats and commoners alike. In the play's final scene, Posthumus forgives Jachimo, advising him to "Live, / And deal with others better" (V.v.418-19). Like Cymbeline, Posthumus can afford to be generous and gracious from a position of proven superiority.

The play's strongest case for the exceptional nobility of its English characters is illustrated through the portrayal of Cymbeline's two sons, Guiderius and Arviragus. Belarius is continuously astonished by the innate nobility they exhibit, as revealed in our initial encounter with him outside the cave where he has raised them. He remarks that the boys are unaware of their royal lineage.

... and though train'd up thus meanly
I' th' cave [wherein they] bow, their thoughts do hit
The roofs of palaces, and nature prompts them
In simple and low things to prince it much
Beyond the trick of others.
(III.iii.82-86)

Their intense desire to participate in the battle and their bravery during the fight demonstrate an inherent virtue. When Guiderius kills and beheads Cloten, he performs another noble act by preventing the corrupt blood of the queen and the foolish blood of Cloten from tainting the truly royal lineage of Cymbeline and his offspring.

For contemporary audiences, the concept of nationalism—pride in one's nation—is a familiar theme. National pride, for instance, drives the competitive spirit of global sporting events like the Olympics. However, sometimes these feelings of nationalism can morph into a destructive force. Ethnocentrism emerges when pride evolves into an attitude of cultural or national superiority. When groups believe their nation or culture is superior to others, it can lead to violence. This is evident in gang conflicts, as well as wars between nations or within countries. Which twentieth-century wars might have been fueled by ethnocentric sentiments? Does nationalism inevitably lead to ethnocentrism? Or can people take pride in their country or culture without deeming others inferior? How are nationalism, ethnocentrism, and racism interconnected?

Bergeron, David M. "Cymbeline: Shakespeare's Last Roman Play." Shakespeare Quarterly 31, no. 1 (1980): 31-41. Bergeron delves into Shakespeare's grasp of Roman history and explores his sources for the characters in Cymbeline.

"Sexuality in Cymbeline." Essays in Literature 10, no. 2 (1983): 159-68. Bergeron contends that since sexuality ensures regeneration, it is often celebrated in the comic realm. He examines the consequences of Cloten's and Iachimo's failures to achieve sexual fulfillment.

Bryant, Peter. "The Cave Scenes in Cymbeline: A Critical Note." Standpunte 23, no. 5 (1970): 14-22. Bryant discusses how Guiderius and Arviragus reveal their true nobility despite their humble surroundings and simple upbringings.

Colley, John Scott. "Disguise and New Guise in Cymbeline." Shakespeare Studies 1 (1974): 233-52. Colley explores how the characters' various disguises uncover their inner qualities. He focuses on Cloten, Imogen, and Posthumus.

Hunt, Maurice. "Shakespeare's Empirical Romance: Cymbeline and Modern Knowledge." Texas Studies in Literature and Language 22, no. 3 (1980): 322-42. Hunt suggests that Cymbeline, Imogen, and Posthumus gain wisdom through their suffering.

Kay, Carol McGinnis. "Generic Sleight-of-Hand in Cymbeline." South Atlantic Review 46, no. 4 (1981): 34-40. Kay investigates the folkloric elements in Cymbeline, particularly its fairy tale beginning.

Lawry, J. S. '"Perishing Root and Increasing Vine' Cymbeline." Shakespeare Studies 12 (1979): 179-93. Lawry examines how the play juxtaposes Rome and England. The harmonious ending of the play foreshadows the advent of Christianity.

Leggatt, Alexander. "The Island of Miracles: An Approach to Cymbeline." Shakespeare Studies 10 (1977): 191-209. Leggatt posits that Cymbeline reflects a concern with England's destiny. He compares Jupiter's rescue of Posthumus to Christ's salvation of humanity.

Mowat, Barbara. "Cymbeline: Crude Dramaturgy and Aesthetic Distance." Renaissance Papers (1966): 39-47. Mowat primarily focuses on how Shakespeare uses specific dramatic techniques for his artistic aims.

Siemon, James Edward. "Noble Virtue in Cymbeline." Shakespeare Survey 29 (1976): 51-61. Siemon argues that Posthumus undergoes significant changes throughout the play. He contrasts Posthumus's actions with the praise he receives from other characters early on.

Smith, Hallett. Introduction to Cymbeline, by William Shakespeare. In The Riverside Shakespeare, edited by G. Blakemore Evans, 1517-20. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974. Smith provides a comprehensive overview of the sources for Cymbeline and its textual history. He analyzes the major characters and compares the play to Shakespeare's other romances.

Swander, Homer. "Cymbeline and the 'Blameless Hero.'" ELH: Journal of English Literary History 31, no. 3 (1964): 259-70. Swander argues that Posthumus does not initially live up to the accolades he receives early in the play. He traces Posthumus's development, asserting that he eventually attains an unconventional excellence.

Taylor, Michael. "The Pastoral Reckoning in Cymbeline." Shakespeare Survey 36 (1983): 97-106. Taylor suggests that Imogen's discovery of Cloten's headless body signifies a loss of innocence.

Thorne, William Barry. "Cymbeline: 'Lopp'd Branches' and the Concept of Regeneration." Shakespeare Quarterly 20, no. 2 (1969): 143-59. Thorne discusses the themes of communal harmony and the unification of young and old as elements of folklore in Cymbeline.