The evolution of cultural criticism in the mid-twentieth century marked a pivotal shift in understanding literature and society. By challenging traditional notions of "high culture," cultural critics exposed the underlying ideologies that perpetuated societal inequities. This transformative approach paved the way for new methodologies and expanded subject matter, influencing academic institutions worldwide.

The 1960s and the Rise of Cultural Criticism

The 1960s were a defining era for cultural criticism, characterized by an intellectual movement aimed at unveiling the implicit biases within mainstream cultural narratives. Academics, driven by Marxist and leftist ideologies, targeted the elitist, racist, and gender-biased elements evidenced in prevailing cultural discourses. This critical examination sought to highlight how mainstream ideas about high culture marginalized non-elite groups. The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, founded by Richard Hoggart in 1964 at the University of Birmingham, became a notable institution leading this charge. Employing innovative and traditional theories alike, the Centre scrutinized various literary works to reveal the ideologies underpinning them. This broadened the scope of cultural studies, allowing for the exploration of diverse texts, such as song lyrics alongside classical sonnets, thus redefining academic approaches to poetry.

European Influences on American Cultural Criticism

The intellectual foundation of this cultural critique was heavily inspired by European philosophical studies. The Frankfurt School, guided by Marxist ideology, critiqued Western society's institutions and propagated what became known as critical theory. Luminaries like Max Horkheimer, Theodor W. Adorno, Erich Fromm, Herbert Marcuse, and Walter Benjamin made significant contributions that began influencing literary studies post-World War II. Concurrently, Italian critic Antonio Gramsci advocated for critics to actively engage with social issues, using their critiques as tools for societal change. This ideology resonated beyond Europe, profoundly impacting American cultural critics, who adopted more interdisciplinary approaches in their analyses.

French Theorists and the Expansion of Literary Criticism

The works of French theorists such as Jacques Derrida, Roland Barthes, Jacques Lacan, and Michel Foucault, along with Belgian theorist Paul de Man, furthered the transformation of literary criticism in America. These thinkers challenged traditional literary criticism, advocating for a comprehensive and interdisciplinary examination of texts. The blend of Marxist-style critiques with poststructuralist insights significantly impacted the study of literature, especially poetry, from the late twentieth century onward.

Postmodern Critiques and Ideology

According to Terry Eagleton in The Idea of Culture (2000), postmodern cultural critics have redefined the essence of cultural criticism. Moving away from Matthew Arnold’s vision of cultural criticism as a celebration of the "best that has been thought and said," postmodern critics focus on critiquing the dominant ideologies within a society. They emphasize identifying and addressing the inadequacies and biases often embedded within literary works, challenging traditional humanist and Western values.

Poststructuralist Approaches to Critique

Poststructuralist cultural critics diverge from critical traditions like humanism, which they argue masks moral judgments as aesthetics, and New Criticism, which isolates texts from their sociopolitical contexts. They delve into the cultural biases influencing textual production and interpretation, frequently offering novel interpretations or uncovering subtexts that challenge conventional readings. Through theories such as deconstruction, poststructuralists highlight the indeterminacy of meaning in poetry, investigating connections across literature, history, and other knowledge realms. This approach underlines how past poems can attain cultural significance for contemporary audiences.

Raymond Williams and the Sociological Perspective

Although not strictly a postmodern critic, Raymond Williams was a pivotal figure in the development of cultural criticism in England during the latter half of the twentieth century. His sociological approach to literary studies, heavily influenced by Marxist theory, viewed art and poetry as integral to the processes through which society constructs conventions and communicates shared values. Williams explored the dynamics between high culture and mass culture, analyzing the power structures influencing a work's aesthetic and social messages. His book, The Country and the City (1973), exemplifies this perspective, offering leftist readings of seventeenth-century "country house" poems. Williams argued these works masked social inequities, using literary devices to obscure the social system's inequities that benefited the elite.