Salem and Puritanism

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The government of Salem in 1692 was a Puritan theocracy. In other words, the town was under the unbending authority of the church. The leaders of the church, and especially the minister of the church, were very powerful figures, comparable to our elected officials. A person who was not a member in good standing of the church was not allowed to live in the community. All citizens were expected to conform to the teachings of the church at all times and to know its catechism, which contained the written statements of the church’s beliefs.

Puritan theology was largely based on the teachings of John Calvin. Calvin was one of a group of theologians who protested against the Roman Catholic church’s departure from the Bible as the ultimate authority. Based on their reading of Saint Paul in the New Testament, they particularly disagreed with the Roman Catholic emphasis on earning your salvation through good deeds on earth. These protesters, or Protestants, believed that salvation could not be earned. The only way to get to heaven was to be chosen by God and to have faith that He would save you from eternal damnation. Some people were predestined, or chosen to be saved, while others were not. While good works would not earn your salvation if you had not been chosen, believers desired to do good works on earth and thus follow the example set by Jesus Christ. Good works were visible signs of your commitment to God.

At the time of the Reformation most of Europe was ruled by a theocracy of its own; that of the Roman Catholic church. The Protestants were compelled by their beliefs to disregard many of the practices of the Catholic church, including buying indulgences and approaching God only through a priest. The church was not pleased with this rebellion against its authority, and the Protestants were greatly persecuted. Many of them left Europe and settled in America to escape this persecution and practice their religion in peace. This was the case with the colony at Salem.

Miller himself has asserted that the community created by such a system was crucial to the survival of the colony against great odds. The settlers of Salem had to deal with attacks from Indians, harsh winters, unyielding soil, and many other hardships. Similar colonies that were not bound by common ideology eventually failed; the Virginia Colony is a good example. In contrast, the people of Salem were united in the strong bonds of a persecuted minority. Their religion required them to act honorably towards their fellow men and to help each other. They were expected to meet regularly at the Meeting House. A strong work ethic was also part of their theology. All of these things contributed to their survival.

Despite the advantages of such a system, however, The Crucible vividly shows it can lead to the loss of any sense of proportion. The Puritans had taken Calvinist theology several steps beyond what Calvin had in mind. While a man’s good deeds could not earn him salvation, they were often used in Salem to determine the quality of his religious life and thus his standings in the community. While Calvin asserted that each man was responsible for his own salvation, the Puritans often took it upon themselves to determine the state of another man’s soul. There was a great emphasis on avoiding damnation, and public confession and “coming back to God” after sin was actively encouraged. Given the importance of good deeds and hard work, as well as the harsh conditions of life in early America, there was little time for pleasure. Many of the pleasures we take for granted, such as dancing, were deemed frivolous and were not permitted. Every facet of life was touched by the rigid teachings of the church, which were strictly enforced. Failure to conform met with harsh penalties, the most severe of which was death by hanging.

Just as the Catholic church had persecuted the Protestants for failing to conform to their rules, so the Protestants persecuted those who did not conform to theirs. There was no room in Salem for free speech. The Bible was the only authority that was recognized, and any teaching not found there was considered not only false, but dangerous. Espousing views not taught by the Bible could lead others away from God, and thus imperil many souls, not just one. Witchcraft was especially dangerous, as its goal was to draw people away from God and into conspiracy with the devil. It was not, however, the only sin punishable by death in Salem. Evidence shows that many who confessed to be Quakers were also hanged. The Puritans would not tolerate even the discussion of an idea contrary to their belief system. It was this atmosphere of repression and fear of punishment that ultimately led to the mass hysteria of the Salem Witch Trials. In short, the system became so important as to completely overrule reason.

Expert Q&A

How does conformity in The Crucible affect the Salem Puritan society?

Conformity in Salem's Puritan society, as depicted in The Crucible, enforces rigid social norms and leads to tyranny. Authority figures like Reverend Parris and Deputy Governor Danforth feel compelled to conform to public opinion, fearing personal and social repercussions. Non-conformity, such as irregular church attendance or dissenting speech, is seen as a threat to societal cohesion, leading to accusations of witchcraft against individuals like the Proctors, further illustrating the dangers of a conformist society.

In The Crucible, why does religion cause conflict?

In The Crucible, religion causes conflict because the Puritan theocracy in Salem leads to extreme, literal interpretations of the Bible, resulting in irrational actions and accusations of witchcraft. The Puritans' fear of the devil and belief in eradicating sin at any cost fostered a mob mentality, where accusations led to immediate guilt and ostracization. Religion became the catalyst for conflict and justified abhorrent behavior.

What does Miller mean by "the fate of each character is exactly that of his historical model"?

Miller means that the characters' fates in his work mirror those of their historical counterparts. He adheres to historical accuracy by not altering events: Rebecca Nurse and John Proctor were executed, Giles Corey was pressed to death, and the girls avoided punishment. This approach underscores the gravity of historical events and allows Miller to comment on the dangers of unchecked power and conformity, drawing parallels to McCarthyism and Nazi Germany.

What symbolism and significance does Mary Warren's quote convey about witch trials and McCarthyism in The Crucible?

"What’ll we do? The village is out! I just come from the farm; the whole country is talking witchcraft! They’ll be callin’ us witches, Abby!" (Act I in The Crucible)
This quote is a comparison of the McCarthyism that occurred during the 1950s and the witch trials in Salem, Massachusetts. The Crucible author Arthur Miller creates the idea that fear and innuendo are able to bring about a sense of paranoia and power in those who would use such things to their benefit. These instances can be compared directly to the McCarthy era.

Is the statement "The female characters in The Crucible are victims of a male-dominated society" valid?

The Crucible is a play that demonstrates the effects of living in a male-dominated society through the plot, themes, and characters.

How were the witch-hunt years in "The Crucible" a time of "general revenge"?

The witch-hunt years in "The Crucible" were a time of "general revenge" as personal grievances, greed, and jealousy fueled accusations of witchcraft. Feuds and disputes, like those between Proctor and Parris or the Putnams and their neighbors, escalated into accusations. Individuals used the trials to settle scores, gain land, or achieve personal vendettas, such as Abigail's scheme against Elizabeth Proctor. This misuse of power and the desire for revenge overshadowed justice and rationality in Salem.

The relevance and depiction of individual versus society in "The Crucible" today

In "The Crucible," the theme of individual versus society remains relevant today as it highlights the conflict between personal integrity and communal expectations. The play depicts how societal pressures can lead to hysteria and the persecution of individuals who defy conformity, reflecting ongoing struggles in contemporary society where individuals often face challenges when standing against prevailing norms and injustices.

Arthur Miller's The Crucible as a Reflection of Its Time Period's Values, Beliefs, and History

The Crucible reflects the values, beliefs, and history of its time period by drawing parallels between the Salem Witch Trials and the McCarthy era. Both periods were marked by hysteria, fear of the unknown, and the persecution of individuals based on unsubstantiated accusations. Miller's play critiques the dangers of mass hysteria and the impact of societal pressures on justice and morality.

The Crucible's Historical Accuracy

The Crucible by Arthur Miller is a fictionalized account based on the real Salem witch trials, incorporating significant artistic license. While characters like Abigail Williams and John Proctor were real, Miller altered facts, such as their ages and relationship, to create dramatic tension. He combined and simplified historical figures and events, focusing more on the psychological and social implications. The play serves as a commentary on the McCarthy-era "witch hunts," rather than a precise historical recounting.

Hysteria's Impact on Individuals, Society, and Reputations in The Crucible

In The Crucible, hysteria profoundly impacts individuals and society, damaging reputations and fueling chaos. Abigail initially gains power but becomes suspect, leading to her flight. John Proctor's integrity costs him his life as he refuses to falsely confess to witchcraft. Elizabeth survives due to her pregnancy but loses her husband. Hysteria, triggered by Mrs. Putnam's witchcraft suspicions and fueled by Abigail's manipulations, spreads rapidly, leading to wrongful accusations and executions, revealing deep societal conflicts and intolerance.

Background

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Background

Arthur Miller’s writing spans a large block of twentieth-century American history. He was certainly influenced by the effects of the Great Depression which uprooted his family when he was in his early teens. Anyone who lived through the deprivation and despair of the Depression could not help but be touched by it. Much of that despair is evident in Death of a Salesman, as the protagonist struggles to make ends meet.

Salesman was also highly influenced by the idea of the “American Dream” that was so pervasive in the early 1950s. After World War II there was a tremendous growth in the country’s economy. Many Americans were able to pull themselves out of relative poverty through hard work and determination. There was a contagious optimism and a feeling that anything was possible. Children were financially better off than their parents had been, and there was no end in sight to the continuation of prosperity. Still, there were those who were not so successful; those who did not manage to grasp a piece of the American Dream. For them, the failure was magnified by the success they saw around them.

Arguably, the historical context central to The Crucible is the “Red Terror” of the 1950s. When China fell to the Communists, many intellectuals in the United States began to ask questions. The government could not afford challenges to its authority. A fervent hunt for suspected Communist sympathizers ensued, led by Senator Joseph McCarthy. McCarthy, a colorful and clever speaker, claimed that Communists had infiltrated government offices and succeeded in driving many people out of their jobs. Even those who were not found to be Communists were permanently tainted in public opinion by McCarthy’s accusations. Many were added to blacklists, which barred certain actors and writers from working. Those who refused to testify could no longer find work, while those who cooperated continued to work. As part of the hunt Clifford Odets was brought before McCarthy and confessed to being a Communist. He was persuaded to name names of others he knew to be Communists, and he pointed to director Elia Kazan. Kazan, in turn, confessed and named names, among which was Arthur Miller.

“McCarthyism,” as it has come to be called, was a particularly shameful chapter of American history. Many citizens were accused with little or no evidence, and their lives were permanently disrupted by the stigma of having been involved. The country was thrown into a mass hysteria similar to that of the witch trials at the center of The Crucible. The effect is a clear and disturbing picture of history repeating itself. Just as many innocent lives were taken in the late 1600s in Salem, Massachusetts, so the reputations of many innocent people were tarnished in the late 1950s in America. Miller himself denies that his play was written as a direct response to the political situation of his time. The parallel, however, is unmistakable. The real message, perhaps, is that such atrocities can occur in any age. Man will never learn from his mistakes.

Historical Context

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In the preface to The Crucible, Miller cautions that "this play is not history," yet it clearly draws from historical events to tell its story. This section will focus on two historical periods: the Salem witch trials and the era of McCarthyism in the 1950s, when Miller wrote the play.

Interest in the Salem witch trials of the seventeenth century was first sparked by Marion Starkey's 1949 book, The Witch Trials in Massachusetts. Those accused of witchcraft were relentlessly pursued by their community and pressured by the prevailing majority opinion until they confessed and implicated others in supposed suspicious activities. Most of the accused were guilty only of behaviors that deviated from societal norms of the time.

To modern readers, these behaviors might seem like mere free expression or eccentricity, but the people of Salem were nonetheless prosecuted. The real-life Reverend Parris led a crusade that resulted in the deaths of twenty individuals, suspected of witchcraft. Many were executed because they refused to cooperate with the trials and never confessed to any crimes. The Salem Witch Trials remain a stark example of religious hysteria and mob mentality in American history.

Miller meticulously incorporates this historical context into his play. He frequently uses the language of seventeenth-century religious practices, showcasing the depth of his research into the customs of that era. For instance, Parris asserts that "we are not Quakers." The Puritans disapproved of Quakers because Quakers believed that God could directly inspire individuals to communicate on His behalf, thereby avoiding hierarchical church structures. Puritans, on the other hand, believed that God spoke only through ordained ministers and placed significant importance on their roles. Abigail's remark about "these Christian women and their covenanted men" reminds the audience that Puritans had to make a solemn promise to adhere to Church rules to become full members. Proctor's critique of Parris's preference for ornate churches—"This man dreams cathedrals, not clapboard meetin' houses"—highlights the Puritans' disdain for such decoration, which was typically associated with other Christian denominations, particularly Roman Catholicism. The Crucible is deeply rooted in the language and customs of seventeenth-century East Coast America.

Running parallel to these early events are those that occurred during Miller's era, which the playwright symbolically addresses through the story of the witch trials. Miller had a keen interest in political matters, including communism, which gained prominence after World War II when Russia's communist regime emerged as a major world power. In the early 1950s, hearings held by Senator Joseph McCarthy's House Un-American Activities Committee concluded that the American Communist Party, a legal political entity, was jeopardizing national security by fostering ties with Russia. Individuals sympathetic to the communist cause or those with connections to Russia could be called before the committee to explain their involvement, renounce their beliefs, and disclose the names of their former friends and associates involved in communism.

The committee was particularly focused on communists within the artistic community. They believed that the most insidious methods for converting Americans to communist ideologies would be through the films, music, and art they consumed. Consequently, McCarthy and his associates prosecuted numerous playwrights, screenwriters, and other artists. In many instances, they succeeded in "blacklisting" these individuals, meaning no one would hire them for fear of being associated with communism. This phenomenon reached its peak in 1950s Hollywood, with screenwriters like Dalton Trumbo (Spartacus) and Ben Hecht (Notorious) being denied employment by major studios. However, many blacklisted talents continued to write using "fronts"—legitimate writers who would put their name on the blacklisted author's work. Several of Miller's contemporaries lost their careers due to these hearings, and Miller himself was summoned before the committee.

These themes are examined in The Crucible through the lens of witchcraft and societal hysteria. The town's hysteria at the play's outset mirrors the frenzy caused by communist "witch-hunting" in 1950s America. John Proctor's trial, confession, recantation, and refusal to name his associates reflect incidents that regularly occurred before the House Un-American Activities Committee. However, due to its wide-ranging moral themes, the play has transcended the specific historical circumstances for which it was written. For instance, its themes have been applied to issues such as late-twentieth-century religious fanaticism, child abuse accusations in the U.S. and Europe, and political freedom in Eastern Europe and China. While McCarthyism inspired Miller, the play's themes address various situations where mob mentality overrides personal integrity, and scapegoating is easier than addressing deep-rooted societal flaws. As long as such practices persist, the play's historical context will continue to be revisited and reapplied.

Compare and Contrast

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  • 1600s: Puritan settlers in New England, who were well-acquainted with persecution, established tight-knit communities where church and state were closely intertwined in governance. In The Crucible, Miller described this system as "a theocracy, a combine of state and religious power whose function was to keep the community together and to prevent any kind of disunity that might open it up to destruction by material or ideological enemies."

1953: Joseph Stalin, who had ruled the Soviet Union since 1928, passed away at the age of 73. Hostilities with the West persisted, and in the United States, efforts were made through the House Committee on Un-American Activities to identify and eliminate communists within the country.

Today: The conclusion of the Cold War led to the collapse of communist influence in Eastern Europe and the disintegration of the Soviet Union into smaller, independent nations. The barriers between Russia and the United States have largely diminished. Although they are not allies, the two nations engage in negotiations on issues such as global peace and international trade.

1600s: In the seventeenth century, Puritans believed in three types of witchcraft: "white magic," which involved charms and spells for good luck; "black magic," which used spells and incantations to harm others; and Satanic servitude, which meant dedicating one's life to serving the Devil. Whether or not witchcraft was real, these beliefs had significant effects on the community, generating considerable fear.

1953: The Church of Scientology was founded in Washington D.C. by science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard. His philosophy was based on the belief that humans are free spirits who can achieve their true nature by freeing themselves from the emotional burdens of the past. Accusations that Scientology is not a genuine religion and that it uses intimidation tactics to extract money from followers were widespread. Other controversial religious sects, such as the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church (commonly known as the Moonies), also emerged in subsequent decades.

Today: Numerous cults and religious subsets exist worldwide. While generally tolerated in free and liberal societies, recent events such as the mass suicides of the Branch Davidians in Waco, Texas, the Heaven's Gate group in California, and the nerve gas attack by Aum Shinrikyo ("Supreme Truth") in Japan have raised concerns about the influence of such cults, particularly on vulnerable individuals who are young, impressionable, or socially isolated.

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