Napoleon and the Restoration of the Bourbons

The year 1815, when The Count of Monte Cristo starts, was a pivotal moment in European history. It marked the end of more than two decades of conflict. The chaos began in 1789 with the onset of the French Revolution. By 1792, France had declared itself a republic, and on January 21, 1793, King Louis XVI was executed. Revolutionary France alarmed the rest of Europe with its aggressive territorial ambitions, leading to a general European war within two months of the king’s execution. During this conflict, Napoleon Bonaparte, born on the island of Corsica, rose to prominence within the French Army, transforming it into a powerful military force. In 1799, he took control of France and, by 1804, proclaimed himself emperor. Until 1812, Napoleon dominated most of Europe. However, his invasion of Russia in 1812 was a miscalculation, and after his army retreated from Moscow, his power began to decline.

In April 1814, Napoleon abdicated as Emperor and was exiled to the island of Elba. The major European powers—Prussia, Austria, and Britain—had labeled him as a global peace disruptor. Louis XVIII, the brother of the executed Louis XVI, ascended to the French throne. This event, known as the First Restoration, restored the Bourbon dynasty to power. This political climate is the backdrop for the beginning of The Count of Monte Cristo.

The restored Bourbons had the backing of the old aristocracy, who had lost their lands during the revolution, but they did not win the loyalty of all the people. Many citizens desired the return of the Emperor, leading to tensions between royalists and Bonapartists. This conflict is evident in the early chapters of the novel. Villefort’s father, Noirtier, is a Bonapartist and a former Girondin (a political faction during the French Revolution), while Villefort himself is willing to serve whoever holds power, despite claiming to be a royalist. It is within this context of a restored monarchy repressing and persecuting the remaining Bonapartists that Dantès finds himself entangled.

Napoleon stayed on Elba for merely ten months. He escaped and landed near Cannes with 1,100 men on March 1, 1815. Crossing the Alps, he marched toward Paris, gaining support from both peasants and soldiers. Upon his arrival in Paris, Louis XVIII, depicted as complacent in The Count of Monte Cristo, realized the threat too late and fled. However, another war soon erupted.

Despite being heavily outnumbered, Napoleon faced defeat by the British general Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon returned to Paris and abdicated. His return, lasting just over three months, became known as the Hundred Days. He was exiled again, this time to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later. Louis XVIII reclaimed the French throne.

During this period, being identified as a Bonapartist became dangerous once more, as Dantès discovers. In the south of France, unrest broke out, resulting in the deaths of many Bonapartists. The Chamber of Deputies, now under Royalist control, demanded and executed actions against Bonapartists involved during the Hundred Days, labeling them as traitors.

The Romantic Novel

The Count of Monte Cristo serves as a prime example of a romantic historical novel. In such novels, the focus is on action, adventure, heroism, and love. Characters are typically portrayed as either entirely good or entirely bad, with little nuance in between. These stories always conclude with a happy ending where good triumphs over evil.

The protagonist in a romantic novel is often an idealized, larger-than-life figure. He embodies traits of courage, integrity, and daring. In The Count of Monte Cristo, Dantès’s qualifications as a romantic hero are clearly outlined in the opening chapters. The very first description of him is as follows:

He was a fine tall slim young fellow, with black eyes, and hair as dark as the raven’s wing, and his whole appearance bespoke that calmness and resolution peculiar to men accustomed from their cradle to contend with danger.

In the early chapters, Dantès is shown consistently acting with integrity and virtue in all aspects of his life, firmly establishing his credentials as a romantic hero. Conversely, the antagonists, Danglars and Fernand, are quickly depicted with envious and deceitful traits. This early characterization sets clear expectations for the reader. Once these character traits are established, they remain unchanged throughout the story. The appeal of the romantic novel does not lie in character development.

Romantic novels are often viewed as escapist literature, presenting events that are unlikely to occur in reality. For instance, Monte Cristo’s extraordinary ability to be in the right place at the right time and to control events and people precisely as he wishes would be implausible in a realistic novel. However, in a romance, readers readily accept such improbabilities.

1840s: France is governed by King Louis Philippe until he is deposed during the February Revolution of 1848. The monarchy is then replaced by the Second Republic, which lasts from 1848 to 1852.

Today: As a well-established parliamentary democracy, France enjoys greater stability under the Fifth Republic, which began in 1958.

1840s: The newly invented electric telegraph revolutionizes communication, making it significantly faster than ever before.

Today: Electronic communication has evolved dramatically with the advent of the Internet and the widespread use of email.

1840s: Railway construction commences across Europe, with the French railway system being developed with Paris as its hub.

Today: France boasts one of Europe's most advanced high-speed rail networks. Trains travel at speeds between 150 mph and 180 mph. The system is renowned for its safety, with no fatal accidents reported in the past two decades.

In the romantic and adventurous world of "The Count of Monte Cristo," settings play a pivotal role in shaping the narrative and its characters. From the bustling maritime city of Marseilles to the mystical Monte-Cristo island, each location is meticulously depicted to enhance the storytelling. These settings are more than mere backdrops; they symbolize the cultural, political, and personal themes woven throughout the novel.

Marseilles: Gateway to Adventure

Marseilles, a southeastern French city on the Mediterranean coast, serves as a crucial starting point in Edmond Dantès's journey. Known for its vibrant history and as the birthplace of the French revolutionary anthem "La Marseillaise," Marseilles is portrayed by Alexandre Dumas as a romantic gateway to the wider world. It is a city of contrasts—home to a Catalan community and a fervent supporter of Napoleon Bonaparte during his brief return from exile. Dumas paints Marseilles with the same charm and liberalism that characterizes Gascony in his earlier work, "The Three Musketeers," providing the hero with a foundation of nobility and passion.

Pharaon and Porto-Ferraio: Harbingers of Fate

The ship Pharaon, on which Dantès serves as mate, is pivotal to his fate. Its fateful stop at Elba, Napoleon's place of exile, sets off a chain of events leading to Dantès's downfall. Meanwhile, Porto-Ferraio, the largest town on Elba, serves as the backdrop for Dantès's alleged Bonapartist conspiracy, providing his enemies the ammunition they need to accuse and imprison him.

Château d’If: Prison of Transformation

The Château d’If, a fortified castle on a small island near Marseilles, becomes Dantès's prison for fourteen years. Built by King François I, the château is emblematic of the repressive post-Napoleonic era, mirroring the injustices suffered by many during this turbulent time. Dumas cleverly draws parallels between Dantès's imprisonment and Napoleon's own exiles, while also introducing the Abbé Faria, whose presence underlines the themes of intellectual freedom and rebellion against tyranny.

Corsica: Island of Vendetta

Corsica, a mountainous island in the Mediterranean, holds thematic importance as the birthplace of Napoleon and as the setting for the Corsican vendetta—a blood feud that aligns with Dantès's quest for revenge. This cultural context enriches the narrative, linking the personal vendettas within the story to broader historical and social themes.

Monte-Cristo: Mystical Treasure Island

The island of Monte-Cristo, south of Elba, is where Dantès discovers a treasure of immense wealth, a pivotal moment in the novel. This discovery sets the stage for his transformation from a wronged sailor into the powerful Count of Monte Cristo. The island itself, with its "Arabian Nights" allure, embodies the novel's romantic Orientalism, and Dantès's rebirth there is tinged with religious symbolism, echoed in the island's name, "Christ’s Mount." Dumas, in a nod to the novel's success, even built a château named Monte Cristo.

Pont du Gard Inn: Sinister Simplicity

In stark contrast to the opulence of other settings, the Pont du Gard Inn is a modest establishment owned by one of Dantès's treacherous friends. Located between Nîmes and Beaucaire, this inn represents the rawer, provincial side of betrayal, devoid of the sophisticated veneer that cloaks the conspiracies of the more affluent characters.

Sinbad the Sailor’s Grotto: Exotic Extravagance

On Monte-Cristo island, Dantès's luxurious grotto, inspired by "The Arabian Nights' Entertainments," showcases his newfound wealth and the novel's fairy-tale quality. This palatial hideaway is filled with opulent furnishings and exotic goods from around the world, reinforcing Dantès's transformation and the novel's thematic connections to global commerce and adventure.

Rome: Theatrical Backdrop for Disguise

Rome, Italy's grand city, sets the stage for Dantès's debut as the Count of Monte Cristo. Amidst the city's carnival festivities, Dumas presents a dramatic backdrop where Dantès's cunning and resourcefulness shine. The city is depicted with vivid melodrama, featuring Dantès's encounters with Italian bandits, daring rescues, and an execution spectacle, all reinforcing his role as a commanding figure in a world of rogues and conspiracies.

Paris: The Modern Babylon

Paris, the heart of the novel's intrigue, is depicted with stunning realism and detail. Dumas draws from his own experiences to recreate the Paris of 1838, filled with opera performances, carriage rides, and the bustling stock market. Yet beneath the surface of this cosmopolitan city lies a Gothic undercurrent of moral decay, particularly among the elite. For Dantès, Paris becomes a stage where he executes his calculated revenge, viewing it ultimately as a "modern Babylon" consumed by its own excesses.

Auteuil: Suburban Facade

In Auteuil, a Parisian suburb, Dantès acquires and renovates a grand house, setting the scene for an extravagant "Oriental feast." This setting reflects the novel's themes of opulence and deception, revealing the corruption lurking beneath the surface of respectable Parisian society through the tale of a newborn's burial on the estate.

Janinna: Echoes of Rebellion

Janinna in northern Greece, while not a central location, provides historical depth to the novel. It serves as a backdrop for themes of betrayal and uprising during the Greek struggle for independence. The setting aligns with Dumas's broader themes of liberation and justice, enhancing the novel's rich tapestry of cultural and political commentary.

The Count of Monte Cristo has frequently been turned into a film. The latest adaptation, released in 2002, was directed by Kevin Reynolds and features Jim Caviezel as Dantès, Guy Pearce as Fernand Mondego, Richard Harris as Abbé Faria, James Frain as Villefort, and Dagmara Dominczyk as Mercedès.

A 1975 film adaptation was directed by David Greene, with Richard Chamberlain playing the role of Dantès.

Sources

Dumas, Alexandre, The Count of Monte Cristo, Grosset & Dunlap, 1946.

Goldberger, Avriel H., “Alexandre Dumas,” in Writers for Children, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1988, pp. 209–213.

Grosskurth, Phyllis, Byron: The Flawed Angel, Houghton Mifflin, 1997, p. 311.

Hemmings, F. W. J., The King of Romance: A Portrait of Alexandre Dumas, Hamish Hamilton, 1979, p. 125.

McCrum, Robert, “The 100 Greatest Novels of All Time,” in the Observer, October 12, 2003, available online at http://observer.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,6903,1061037,00.html (2003).

Shakespeare, William, Hamlet, Cambridge University Press, 1980, p. 88.

Spurr, H. A., The Life and Writings of Alexandre Dumas, new edition, Haskell House, 1973, p. 183.

Further Reading

Maurois, André, Alexandre Dumas: A Great Life in Brief, Knopf, 1966. This concise biography portrays Dumas as a hero akin to those in his own novels.

Ross, Michael, Alexandre Dumas, David & Charles, 1981. This engaging and sympathetic biography depicts Dumas as a charming and good-natured individual, countering claims from his critics who labeled him a charlatan. Ross focuses more on Dumas’s life rather than his literary works.

Schopp, Claude, Alexandre Dumas: Genius of Life, translated by A. J. Koch, Franklin Watts, 1988. Originally published in France in 1986, this is the most recent English biography of Dumas, offering a detailed and colorful portrayal of his life.

Stowe, Richard S., Alexandre Dumas (père), Twayne World Authors Series, No. 388, Twayne, 1976. This is the best and most succinct guide to Dumas’s work available in English. It includes analyses of his major works, a chronological table, and an annotated bibliography.