SOURCE: "Icons of the Alternate Culture: The Themes and Functions of Underground Comix," in Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. VIII, No. 4, Spring, 1975, pp. 836-52.

[In the following excerpt, Sanders considers the social, political, and commercial aspects of underground comic books.]

Much of the popular culture literature is devoted to the discussion of the theoretical constructs and methodological approaches which are most useful in the study of "non-elite" cultural products. I agree with Gillespie that clarity will not be achieved until standardized interpretive concepts are developed. This framework can be built only when the foci and explanatory perspectives employed are clearly and consistently presented.

This paper deals with a relatively new cultural product—underground comix. It is a study of an artistic phenomenon which focuses on the socially constructed definitions of reality which shape both form and content. In that the effect of this medium/message on the perceptions and values of its consumers is emphasized, the discussion relates generally to the sociology of art.

The premise that art is shaped by the interaction of the artist, the public and the distribution network underlies the following discussion. Art is not created in a vacuum. The artist has learned the values and perceptions which are generally accepted within the host society. Similarly, underground comix artists are conscious members of an alienated group which has developed a body of lore and a particular view of reality. Comix clearly reflect the subcultural socialization of their creators.

Is it legitimate to view underground comix as a part of contemporary popular culture? Not if Nye's definition is employed. Comix are not "widely diffused, generally accepted (and) approved by the majority". I prefer, however, to use the broader definition of popular culture offered by Ray Browne.

(A) viable definition for Popular Culture is all those elements of life which are not narrowly intellectual or creatively elitist and which are generally though not necessarily disseminated through the mass media.… "Popular Culture" thus embraces all levels of our society and culture other than the Elite—the "popular," "mass" and "folk."

Comics, as an artistic product, provide an excellent mirror in which the careful observer can see reflected the values, hopes, concerns and perceptions of the society. Further, in that comics function to promote social change by mocking that which is held sacred and provide a medium for bringing socially disapproved topics to the public consciousness, they offer an excellent source of data on how social change mechanisms operate. These aspects of comics will be used to focus a later discussion of the subcultural and societal impact of underground comix.

The following discussion begins with a brief history which touches on the major graphic forms and social forces which are important in the development of underground comix. Next, a description of the thematic patterns to be found in the comix is presented. This description provides the illustrative base for an analysis of the impact which comics, in general, and undergrounds, in particular, have on American culture. Comix exist because they provide some people with something they need. A meaningful discussion of an artistic product must deal with the function of the product for its audience. As Van Den Haag states:

In my opinion, emphasis on cultural objects misses the point. A sociologist (and to analyze mass culture is a sociological enterprise) must focus on the functions of such objects in people's lives: he must study how they are used; who produces what for whom; why, and with what effects. To be sure, value judgments cannot be avoided, but the qualities of the product become relevant only when related to its social function.

The paper concludes with an analysis of the cohesive role which comix play in the growing alternative culture with which the majority of the artists identify.

I will admit to some personal discomfort with this discussion at the outset. While potentially leading to a greater understanding of cultural products and social mechanisms, academic analyses of artistic creations tend to hide their real beauty. Unfortunately, a feeling for the experience of art rarely survives linear analyses. Comix are fun, thought provoking and aesthetically pleasing. I am hopeful that this discussion does not obliterate the fact that underground comix often provide the reader with an exciting and rewarding experience.

A decade or more before McLuhan presented his analysis of comics, various social observers were noting their rising popularity with considerable alarm. They maintained that the form, values and content of the comics were turning young people into violent, semi-literate animals with bloated egos and an inability to delay gratification. While disagreeing with the dire consequences predicted by anti-comics crusader Fredric Wertham, many writers in the 40's and 50's stressed the importance of comics in molding and reflecting national values. Bakwin, for example, states:

Comics are recognized as valuable aids in influencing people's understanding and attitudes. They inculcate children with common concepts, doctrines, attitudes, sentiments.

This presentation of the socializing function of comics is directly relevant to the specific focus of this paper.

Underground comix do more than simply reflect the social definitions shared by members of a loosely knit counterculture. Comix also transmit a consistently patterned ideological system to those who feel an "affinity" for a group which maintains an alternate view of reality. In Matza's terms, comix may be an important factor in the "affiliation" process through which individuals come to reconsider their values, perceptions and relationships in light of newly presented possibilities. As Wald and Gussow state:

Kids who stopped reading comics when they could no longer relate to Uncle Scrooge or Batman found—in Those Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers and Crumb's characters and all the others—images of the new style of life which they were uncertainly grouping after.

Undergrounds have roots which are sunk deep in the American comic tradition. The first American comic books were reprinted collections of newspaper strips. The most famous of these early books was a collection of Mutt and Jeff strips which appeared in 1911. George Delacorte, owner of the Dell Publishing Company, brought out The Funnies, a tabloid size comic book which ran for thirteen issues, in 1929. From this modest beginning a popular art form has developed which has considerable impact on the lives of countless American young people.

The work of comic artists is of primary importance in shaping the style and approach of many underground artists. Robert Crumb, one of the best known comix creators, attributes much of his style to the influence of Basil Wolverton, Walt Disney, Chester Gould, Walt Kelly and Harold Gray. Underground artist Roger Brand reports that 30% of his fellow artists are dedicated to the study and collection of "commercial" comics.

Another comic form which has influenced undergrounds is the "eight-pager" or "Tiajuana bible"—pocket-sized pamphlets which first made their clandestine appearance in the twenties and were devoted primarily to the depiction of sexual intercourse.

In the mid-SO's an anti-comic crusade was led by Fredric Wertham, a psychiatrist whose book Seduction of the Innocent (1954) played a seminal role in the creation of the Comics Code Authority. This organization set up a set of restrictions with which all comics (under threat of boycott) were obliged to comply. This crude censorship mechanism was aimed primarily at William Gaines' horror and violence-ridden E.C. Comics and Harvey Kurtzman's satire comic Mad (also published by Gaines). While the Comics Code signaled the death of the E. C. horror line, Mad (despite Kurtzman's departure) continued to exist—though in a magazine, rather than comic, format. Mad and similar publications such as Help, Trump, Humbug, and Panic provided a watered-down model for the biting political and cultural satire which abounds in contemporary undergrounds.

In the mid-60's, aided by dope and political activity, a youth culture began to emerge out of the comfortable apathy of the 50's. A growing number of people found themselves increasingly alienated from the racist, cold war, property-over-people mentality of main-stream America. An important aspect of this emergent social movement was the creation of new artistic and propagandistic media experiments. The ballrooms of the Haight-Ashbury, that mid-60's mecca of the counter-culture, were filled with pulsing sounds and flashing projections designed to mimic and enhance the psychedelic drug experience. Young artists began creating posters—some strangely distorted by new chemical experiences, some reminiscent of late 19th century poster art—which advertised these multi-media presentations. A number of these poster artists, especially Rick Griffin and Victor Moscoso, later became highly respected comix creators.

Another development of the "flower-power era" which was important to the emergence of comix was the "underground paper." Daniels points out the interesting parallel between the evolution of commercial comic books and that of undergrounds.

(U)nderground comics … progressed through their speedy growth in a manner which reduplicated the progress of the standard comics. They began in newspapers, and gradually branched out into comic book form. But since the new comics were to be totally free of censorship, they could evolve only in a new kind of newspaper.

Underground papers and "sick humor" magazines which developed in and around university communities (e.g., the Pelican, The University of California, The Texas Ranger) provided the necessary arena in which young comic artists could display their artistic skills and anti-mainstream values. In 1965, New York's East Village Other began printing William Beckman's "Captain High," the earliest continuous strip to appear in the underground press. The EVO went on to print the early works of Kim Deitch, Crumb and Art Speigelman. Philadelphia's Yarrowstalks was printing R. Crumb's work, while Gilbert Shelton was producing graphic insanity for The Texas Ranger and the Rag in Austin. In the Midwest Skip Williamson and Jay Lynch, two Chicago artists, were creating the Mirror, an underground magazine filled with their own cartoons and satire. Early work by Williamson and Lynch also appeared in The Realist, the Chicago Seed and Aardvark.

By 1968, underground media heads saw the budding popularity of underground cartoon strips and San Francisco's Print-Mint (previously devoted primarily to the printing and distribution of poster art), brought out Yellow Dog, the first all comic newspaper. In New York, the EVO launched Gothic Blimp Works Comics (originally edited by Kim Deitch and Trina Robbins). This monthly comic tabloid featured the works of Crumb, Shelton, "Spain" Rodrigues, S. Clay Wilson and other underground artists, as well as some material produced by aboveground comic artists. At about the same time Shelton put out Radical Amerika Comix and Feds and Heads and a college professor who signed himself "Foolbert Stugeon" published The New Adventures of Jesus.

As is stated in the introduction, it is necessary to focus attention on the distribution system in order to understand the development and social impact of a popular cultural form. The style and content of comix limit their acceptability, distribution and popularity. Bensman and Gerver emphasize that artists must take care that "the thematic treatment should not alienate any interest group of the potential audience" if their artistic product is to be accepted into the corpus of "mass art."

The freedom from censorship which makes comix vigorous, humorous and exciting also creates severe economic and legal problems for their artists and distributors. A limited audience and distribution network necessitates limited press runs which, in turn, decreases profits. Small profits limit the amount of money which can be paid to artists and which can be utilized to expand the distribution network. For example, Denis Kitchen's Krupp Comic Works currently has a catalogue of some 36 books of which there are about 1,000,000 copies in print. Marvel and D. C., the two major commercial comic publishers, sell 1,000,000 copies a month! Kitchen comments on the problems of the comix publisher:

Straight comic publishers have the distinct advantage of large press runs, which cuts printing costs per book, and commercial advertising, which brings in revenue beyond that which is produced by the sales of books. Underground comic publishers have severe handicaps in economic terms because of small press runs and no advertising.

Hope for the healthy economic growth of the comix industry lies in the ability of the undergrounds to reflect the interests, values and fantasies of a growing number of (mostly young) people. The commercial comics, despite relatively limited attempts to deal with current social issues, are simply getting old. Constrained by a mass audience, the abovegrounds deal cautiously with social issues. Their artistic quality is rapidly declining. Titles, story lines, artistic style and subjects are monotonously similar. Further, new young artists are no longer willing to be hacks for the large comic firms, preferring artistic freedom to economic security.

Any thorough discussion of a popular cultural form must, at some point, focus on the identifiable thematic patterns which are presented in the works being analyzed. This section will deal with the following major underground themes: culture conflict, drugs, sex, politics, ecology, and religion/mysticism.

A common creative premise found in comix is the confrontation between the upstanding, white, middle-class, middle-aged citizen and the cultural or racial deviant. As can be expected, the deviant is usually victorious. The language, values, appearance and activity of the "freak" are usually so foreign or repellant to the "straight" that the latter is rendered defenseless. In many cases, the hip protagonist is simply more intelligent than his straight antagonist. Shelton Freak Brothers (Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers #1, Further Adventures of the Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers), Crumb's Mr. Natural (Mr. Natural #s 1 & 2) and Rand Holmes' Harold Hedd (The Collected Adventures of Harold Hedd) are prime examples of the freak characters who commonly win out because of superior wit or simple good luck.

Another assumption upon which a number of culture conflict episodes are based is that the exotic hedonistic pleasures of the hip subculture exert a powerful pull on straights. The middle-class American's hesitant taste of the hip life is usually relatively disastrous.

It is clear where the cultural sympathies of the artists lie. A number of pages present open invitations to join the fun-loving counterculture (see, for example, the back cover of Zap #1.

Not all cultural confrontations portrayed are between hips and straights. Conflict between blacks and whites is common (e.g., Crumb's "Whiteman" in Zap #1, and "Fritz Bugs Out" in Fritz the Cat). Wilson often has deviants meeting other deviants (Dykes vs. Fags, Pirates vs. Dykes, Pirates vs. Demons, Bikers vs. Dykes, etc., etc. See Bent or any of Wilson's work in Zap #1 through Zap #7).

Drugs are commonly encountered in underground comix. Some of the underlying messages transmitted promote the use of illegal drugs (e.g., Shelton Freak Brothers, Holmes' Harold Hedd). The inside back cover of Crumb's Zap #0 proclaims, "Help build a better America! Now you don't need a 'shrink' to flush out Karmic conjestion! GET STONED!" This is followed by instructions on how to smoke marihuana. Similarly, the back cover of Tales From the Ozone is devoted to a plea for the legalization of marihuana. The message reads:

It's time to end the sham and hypocracy of America's anti-pot laws! Marihuana is a harmless, benevolent herb known to man for thousands of years as a gentle, non-addictive and pleasant high. Pot is less habit-forming than tobacco and has none of the life destroying properties of alcohol. So jump on the band wagon and join the millions of patriotic Americans who say: Make mine pot!

Not all drugs are presented favorably. The use of speed, and opiates and barbiturates is never portrayed as a desirable activity. In fact, a number of artists present a clear anti-drug line (excluding reefer and psychedelics). In "Street Corner Daze" (Zap #3) Crumb offers "a public service comic strip on the subject of SPEED for the good of the community." Junk Comix and Williams' Tuff Shit both deal primarily with heroin use, displaying hard antijive attitudes.

Strips which focus on drug themes often present extensive drug use and effective political action as contradictory activities. In his story of three young men who have just been released from prison (Inner City Romance #1: Choices), Colwell clearly presents these two alternatives. In both Choices and its sequel, Radical Rock, the artist stresses the value of political activity over chemical escape. Hayes deals similarly with the politics vs. drugs issue in his strip "Dear Crusader" (Conspiracy Capers).

Another predominant message found in the comix is that sex is fun. Because of their open depiction of sexual acts all undergrounds carry the caution "adults only" and mail order distributors require that all purchasers sign a statement that they are over 21 years old. Sex is the most common topic used to orient single theme comix. A partial list of sex comix includes, Bizarre Sex, Young Lust#s 1-3, Snatch #s 1-3, Jiz, Cunt, Sex and Death, Zap #4, Big Ass, Turned on Cities, Clits and Tits, and Facts of Life Comix. It is here that the impact of the old "8 pagers" on the undergrounds is most obvious. In setting down their most juicey fantasies, comix artists go far beyond the stiff sexuality of Little Annie Fanny, Barbarella, Phoebe Zeitgeist or any of the other commercial "sexy" comics.

The development of an organized and vocal women's movement has given rise to a serious and valid critique of comix. Women's Liberation does not object to the fact that undergrounds display sexual activity, it is how women and sex are presented which is ideologically repugnant. Women are often depicted as objects whose primary functions are to "get laid and/or nag her old man." Those active in the women's movement feel justifiably betrayed—comix are humorous and cohesive journals created primarily by and for members of a culture which should present values, perceptions and activities which are in opposition to those of the dominant society. Yet, the roles, activities and images of both men and women portrayed by underground artists are not radically different from those cherished in the mainstream culture. Why? And what can and is being done?

First, the vast majority of underground artists are men; men who have been socialized in a male-dominated culture. Dominance is difficult and uncomfortable to give up, particularly when there is often little male peer support for the struggle.

In her thought-provoking article, "Guilt Comix," Gretchen states:

What the comix presently depict is the sickness and hungupness inside most of us. Perhaps getting this out in the open is the first step, but how do you raise the consciousness of both the artist and the reader? How do you change the artist so he depicts women as equals?

The author later suggests that one important step is for women to get more involved in the creation of comix. Further, those concerned with the sexist values displayed in undergrounds must continuously challenge the artists so that they are aware of the consequences of their artistic actions.

Gretchen's suggestion that more women should become involved as underground artists and writers has been heeded in the last three years. In 1970 Trina Robbins and a staff of women artists produced It Ain't Me, Babe. In 1972 four other women's comix were published (Tits and Clits Comix, All Girl Thrills, Wimmen's Comix and Girl Fight Comics). In addition, more of the recent comix created by men are openly (particularly those which present a clear political message) disavowing male-dominance, objectification of women and sex role stereotypes (esp. London's Merton of the Movement and Left Field Funnies, Colwell's Inner City Romances #s 1 & 2, and Sturgeon's Amazon Comics).

Perhaps the presentation of a political ideology is the most common way in which comic art has historically been utilized. Artists from Hogarth and Dore through Walt Kelley, Al Capp, Harold Gray and Chester Gould to Fieffer, Steadman and the contemporary multitude of political cartoonists have all used the comic medium to transmit a political message. In his discussion of comics McLuhan maintains that American popular art, in general, represents "an authentic imaginative reaction to official action."

Given this well established comic function and the fact that all underground artists have more or less vast disagreements with the political structure and priorities of establishment America, it is hardly surprising that all comix present either overt or covert political commentary. These presentations vary considerably. Some artists (e. g., Crumb's Motor City #s 1 & 2, and People's Comix, Crawford in High-Flying Funnies Comix and Stories, and Sutherland in American Flyer Funnies) ridicule both the reactionaries and the radicals. Other comix such as Conspiracy Capers and Radical America Komix were produced to raise money and propagandize for radical groups.

Often the forces of right and justice are aided by a radical super-hero in their fight against the suppressive powers of the state. Manuel "Spain" Rodrigues has created Trashman (Subvert Comics #s 1 & 2), a hero who uses his mastery of para-science to combat the tyrannical government which rises to power after the great nuclear war. In order to counter-balance the effect of his rightist super-hero, Captain Guts, Larry Welz has created Wyatt Winghead, a freak with a drug expanded cosmic consciousness, psychic powers and considerable technological know-how (Captain Guts Comics #s 1-3, American Flyer Funnies).

Greg Irons, an extremely accomplished artist who sees little humor in the current political situation, has produced some of the most striking political commentary to be found in any art form. In Heavy Tragi-Comics, for example, Irons tells the story of Fou, a young man raised alone in the ideal Rouseauian wilderness. Fou returns to civilization typified by a Disneyland made up of the ugliest aspects of American society ("GHETTOLAND. Ride the el over seamy side streets. Gloat at death, despair and deprivation at no personal risk.") and run by a junkie Mickey Mouse who commands a redneck park guard and a harem of ex-mouseketeers. Mickey gives the naive young man "a place in the society of man" and in the final panels a newly crew-cut and button-down Fou quietly declares:

Everything's just wonderful since I started working for Mr. Mouse. After a short rehabilitation program I was assigned to one of the animation departments in Mr. Mouse's studios. It's a relatively unimportant job, really, but it's interesting and there's lots of opportunity for advancement. Besides, the pay's really great and the benefits like paid vacations, hospitalization, insurance, and a retirement fund that allows one to draw a full pension when I'm only sixty-five. Besides all that, I'm working with a great bunch of fellows and we get together a lot after work and on weekends and have lots of fun bowling and drinking and telling jokes and swapping wives. But best of all, I don't have to worry about any of those silly questions anymore.…

Irons does not use his powerful artistic style to bludgeon home any particular political line. He simply says, "Look at the stupidity of the violence which you wreak on each other and which you justify with short-sighted political ideologies" (see Legion of Charlies and Irons' work in Hydrogen Bomb).

There is one newer work which deserves mention in this discussion of political comix. Barney Steel's Armageddon #s 1 & 2 present an anachronistic, highly individualistic social philosophy which has its roots in Ayn Rand's Objectivism. The hero and heroine are strong, independent and intelligent. Social organization, faith, altruism, all are evils which limit individual freedom and which must be destroyed. On one page of Armageddon #1 the hero and heroine, both naked, are battling the forces of social order. The hero wields an ax labelled "9th Amendment" while his partner screams "Laissez-Faire, you statist, socialist, commie, Fascist, Christian Pigs!" Steel takes Irons' distrust of organized ideology and creates an ideological world in which the most extreme individualism is tempered only by the necessity of a monogamous sexual relationship. Steel's political message is clear; politics is evil. Irons suggests avoiding it, Steel is bent on its destruction.

Ecological concerns are often used to focus political statements made in underground comix. The ideological framework employed by those artists most concerned with the condition of our ecology is pop anti-technological elitism—the ecological battle is between people and machines. The primary exponent of this position is George Metzger, an excellent artist whose favorite story setting is the vigorous rural society formed by those people who moved to exurban communes before the great war turned the urban areas into nuclear slag-heaps (see Moondog #s 1 & 2, Truckin', and Metzger's work in Slow Death #4, Yellow Dog #s 17 & 21, Fantagor #2, Laugh in the Dark #1 and San Francisco Comic Book #3). The message that our culture's cavalier ecological attitude will bear disastrous fruit is commonly presented through the depiction of a future society struggling for survival in a ravaged and inhospitable world. Irons ("It Grows," Slow Death #1) clearly lays out the ethic of ecological responsibility which he and the other artists who deal with the environmental theme wish their readers to adopt.

Ultimately, the solution comes down to the actions of the individual. We have most of the answers already. What is necessary is the willingness to carry out what we know is the answer. This means changing whole life styles. Living the solution. WHAT ARE YOU DOING?

Mockery of established religious institutions is not the only way in which underground artists bring religion into comix. Sturgeon (The New Adventures of Jesus, Jesus meets the Armed Forces) and Jaxon (God Nose) both evidence deep respect for traditional Christian values and precepts. Sturgeon delights in showing Jesus as he comes up against the absurd, present-day interpretation of the principles which he originated. In his article on the Jesus comix, Greeniones views Sturgeon as attempting to prompt the reader to reevaluate and adopt the "original" Christian perspective.

He is funny in the right places and is aware of the higher purpose he must fill of making Christ more familiar to us again on our terms so that we may be receptive to his message.

John Thompson (Eternal Tales #1, The Kingdom of Heaven is With You Comix and Cyclops Comics #1) deals solely with mystical/occult/religious themes. His work is a bizarre amalgam of mythical, occult, Christian, Indian and oriental symbols and characters. Thompson's comix are so personalistic and esoteric that, while it is apparent that his work has some mystical religious significance, the message (if there is a message) is difficult to grasp.

Another comix artist who deals with religious themes is Dan O'Neill. In Hear the Sound of My Feet Walking … Drown the Sound of My Voice Talking, a collection which was commissioned by Glide Church, O'Neill's religious concerns are most apparent. The introduction of this volume somewhat pompously maintains that O'Neill "captures the nature of existence and struggles with picturization of metaphysics."

The comic form is low in definition and segmented. It requires that the observer fill in the missing detail out of his/her own desires, fantasies and experiences. The personal participation required by comics fosters interest and engagement. The simplicity, availability and familiarity of the comic form often obscure its aesthetic value. Comic art has a central place in our shared cultural heritage; it is experienced less as an art form than as a familiar aspect of day-to-day American reality.

It is not surprising that artists who are concerned with creating relevant "museum art" using objects and forms which are commonly shared, understood and encountered in everyday life have shown an interest in comics. Roy Lichtenstein is the artist primarily responsible for bringing the popular comic form into the elite setting of the fine arts museum. Lichtenstein isolated and enlarged comic panels, emphasized the lines and filled the spaces with screen-patterned color dots to create paintings which were faithful to the form and content of the comics. He carefully chose panels which portrayed "archetypical situations" and climaxes of action.

The efforts of Lichtenstein, Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns and Chicago's Hairy Who group opened the way for the acceptance of comics as serious and significant graphic creations which merited museum exposure. The Phoenix Gallery in Berkeley has had a number of showings of the work of underground artists. In 1971 Chicago's Museum of Contemporary Art devoted an entire floor to a showing of the work of Moscoso, Williams, Griffin, Crumb, Wilson and other of the better known underground artists.

A significant amount of comix material is devoted to an exploration of the artistic potential of the medium. It is here that the importance of the Haight-Ashbury poster art of the mid-60's in the development of contemporary comix is most apparent. The perceptual changes produced by hallucinogenic chemicals is another important factor which has shaped the comix aesthetic.

The comix artists whose work is least constrained by thematic content and who, consequently, emphasize composition, execution and style are Victor Moscoso and Rick Griffin. Both artists have similar styles and employ similar techniques. Both were poster artists prior to their involvement with undergrounds. Apart from the almost perfect graphic work of Corben (Fantagor, Slow Death #4, Wierdom, Tales of the Plague, etc.), Griffin and Moscoso produce the most careful and technically accomplished underground art.

Moscoso and Griffin are surrealists; their curvilinear characters live on barren plains with stark, flat horizons. They are unencumbered by plot or direction and required to push out only an occasional word balloon. As students of aboveground comics Moscoso and Griffin people their panels with familiar comic and cartoon characters. Moscoso is particularly fond of the Planter's Peanut Man, Maggie and Jiggs, Minnie Mouse, and Donald Duck. Donald Duck and Mickey Mouse are also commonly encountered in Griffin's work. They are, however, accompanied by a nightmare hoard of talking eyeballs with arms and legs, scarabs and pythons. Moscoso's work is somewhat simpler than Griffin's; he uses fewer words and his arrow straight panel borders enclose sizable areas of unused space. The majority of the action in Moscoso's work is due to the disintegration and integration of his characters and the appearance and disappearance of empty thought balloons, stars, pyramids and lightbulbs. Sex plays a more important thematic role in Moscoso's comic art than it does in Griffin's (see Zap #s 3 & 4 and Color).

Griffin's art is clearly executed and jammed with symbolism, characters and activity. He constantly plays with palindromes—live/evil, god/dog, OXO, AAA. Lightbulbs, cue balls, wings, swords, roses and hearts encircled by thorns commonly appear in Griffin's work. The gravitational field in the fantasy worlds which he creates seems to be weak—his characters are often floating a bit off the "ground." Griffin's characters are also more verbal than those created by Moscoso. They say interesting things like "It's getting better all the time," "Howdy," "I am the vacuum of pure spirit" or "Zounds."

A few other comix artists attempt to achieve the technical and conceptual heights of Moscoso and Griffin. Ron Lipking's work in Spiffy Stories is, for the most part, crude, simplistic imitation. Ric Sloane (Ric Sloane Comics #1) is a somewhat more accomplished technician than Lipking but his symbols and composition are an embarrassingly blatant rip-off of Griffin.

Greg Irons is as accomplished a comix artist as can be found. In Light, Irons' collection of plot-less, essentially non-verbal color drawings, the careful observer finds many of the symbolic objects which abound in Griffin's art (scarab, wings, light bulbs, skulls). The first half of the book presents the progressively terrifying mutation of a young man's head. The last half of the book contains some dozen pages of graphic horror. On each page sit one or more crazed monsters drawn with meticulous attention to each putrefying detail. Irons does not attempt to utilize the flat horizon/barren plain surrealist convention favored by Moscoso and Griffin and all of his work clearly emphasizes anti-establishment values. Nonetheless, his mastery of technique, his rejection of words for graphic symbols and his frequent nonreliance on the crutches of plot and story line, indicate that Irons, along with Griffin and Moscoso, is a master of the visionary, nonlinear, artistic tradition which had its birth a decade ago in the San Francisco poster phenomenon.

It is apparent from the increasing number of publishers, active artists, available titles and distribution sources that underground comix are growing in popularity. This growth indicates that the structure of contemporary American society and the perceived needs of its constituents provide fertile ground for the growth of a cultural product with the form and content of the undergrounds. I will conclude with a specific discussion of the various ways in which structure, needs, form and content interact to sustain comix. The discussion will focus on the impact of undergrounds on dominant American values and the functions of comix for the nebulous alternative culture whose members are primarily responsible for their creation, distribution and consumption.

What is the basis for the increasing popularity of the comic medium in contemporary America? The answer is relatively simple. Comics emphasize action, reflect current values and concerns, and are generally easy to understand. In addition, they are inexpensive, readily available and have become a familiar component of the popular entertainment alternatives from which we choose our leisure-filling activities.

There is a close relationship between the social and technological structure of a society and the artistic and media forms which are appropriate, satisfying, utilized and supported. McLuhan maintains that the existence of instantaneous electronic technology determines the form of the human environment. Members of contemporary Western society are encased in an electronic techno-cultural reality. Consequently, non-linear, low definition ("cool") media forms which demand significant observer participation are most acceptable to those whose perceptions are shaped by the reality of the electronic era.

McLuhan sees comics as a collection of crude images which present the observer with limited, but immediately apprehended, information. The appropriate "coolness" of the comic form, according to McLuhan's theory, accounts for its current popularity.

In his interesting cross-cultural study of the relationship between social structure and the manipulation of pictorial elements in dominant art forms, Fischer (1961) indicates that the artistic products which are accepted in a hierarchical social system will share certain characteristics. In short, the choice and arrangement of pictorial elements, according to Fischer, mirror the structure of the society in which the art is produced.

On the basis of Fischer's analysis, what pictorial choices and arrangements would one expect to find in popular American art? The graphic products accepted in America's hierarchically structured social system would be typified by a) the incorporation of a number of unlike elements, b) asymmetrical design, c) enclosed figures, and d) the utilization of all available space. In that these characteristics are descriptive of the comic form, the popularity of comics in our hierarchically structured society is imminently understandable. The theoretical discussions presented by McLuhan and Fischer indicate that the current popularity of the comic form derives from the fact that it meets the needs and expectations which are shaped by social structure and shared perceptions of reality.

Do underground comix have any impact on the rigid structure of the society's mainstream values, attitudes and social definitions? To restate a major premise of this paper, I maintain that comix do play an important role in social change. They present healthy alternative values, perceptions and artistic techniques under the guise of smut, art and entertainment.

Given the anti-comic furor which arose in the mid-50's, and the current wide-spread use of the comic medium to "painlessly" educate young people about the dangers of drug abuse, sex and various other disapproved behavior, it is difficult to maintain that the comic idiom is an ineffective educational medium. Thirty years ago Gruenberg stated:

For a century we have looked to the schools to develop a national unity in our heterogeneous population by inculcating children, as they grow up, with common concepts, doctrines, attitudes, sentiments. But the comics, claiming to be no more than toys, have been doing just that, reaching continuously more than the schools, more than the newspapers.

The educational possibilities of comix are not lost on their creators or those members of the alternative culture who are seriously committed to seeing Americans go through some necessary humanizing changes. As was touched on in the previous section on comix themes, undergrounds have been created which are intended to educate people about such vital issues as sex role oppression (e.g., It Ain't Me Babe), pregnancy and venereal disease (Facts of Life Comics) and impending ecological disaster (e.g., Slow Death). Comix also are created to provide people with useful information on various aspects of daily life from personal hygiene (National Hair Care Comix and Stories) to hitch-hiking (Hit the Road). Though comix probably have some impact on dominant values, this is severely hampered by the comix limited audience.

While the extent to which undergrounds have a significant and direct effect in promoting alteration in either individual or group value structures is open to question, I maintain that the comix do open ways for change to begin. They do provide the vacillating straight with a new way to look at reality and a repertoire of alternate behavioral models. As comix critic, Paul Buhle, observes:

Like any potentially subversive cultural mechanism, komix serve at best to destroy an old view of the world and to replace it with a new one. They must provide a means of self-expression for the artist or be false—and in a healthy political movement, the artist's attitudes will correspond to the needs of the larger movement, making his self-expression a new way for masses of people to see their own lives.

It is clear, therefore, that the most important current function of the comix is the cohesion of a group of people who feel alienated from the dominant culture and who are seeking social support for their anger and disgust. In that they reflect shared values and sharpen shared perceptions the comix sustain the alienated group and play an important role in the affiliation process by which new members are socialized and become a part of the counter-cultural community.

Because they clearly present a new world view and portray the stupidity, uptightness and inhumanity of "accepted" values and behaviors, comix may play an important initial role in the conversion process. Yet undergrounds are not widely available and, consequently, the number of potential converts that they reach is severely limited. It is unrealistic to expect that comix will have significant direct effect on the existing social order.

Two other cohesive functions of the underground comix should be mentioned. Comix are important in that they help define boundaries; they separate "us" from "them." The graphics, values and priorities presented in the undergrounds outrage the sensibilities of straight America. They are part of the wall which separates the "friends" from the "enemies." In the eyes of those who are united in their opposition to the changes desired by the alienated "class," comix are cultural artifacts which "serve the function of underscoring class levels" they are "tags or indicators of one's stratum within the American class system.

Finally, underground comix are counter-cultural journals. They are a major component of the material culture which is valued by the alienated subculture. They are a creative art form in which the members can take pride; they are the icons of the counter culture—symbolic, value-laden, message-carrying objects. Underground comix entertain us, titillate our senses, raise our consciousness, touch our souls, and stir the anger in our guts. The increasing popularity and availability of comix clearly indicate that these filth-ridden, absurd, beautiful, over-priced books present, for a growing number of people, an acceptable picture of contemporary American reality and appropriate ways of dealing with this reality.