Places Discussed
Chamberlayne flat
Chamberlayne flat. London apartment owned by the Chamberlaynes, in whose drawing room most of the play is set. Although the apartment has an offstage kitchen, there appears to be virtually nothing eat in the apartment, except for a few eggs. The lack of food for the party, or even ordinary meals, symbolizes the lack of provision for any life in this shell of a home. As the play unfolds, both Chamberlaynes prove to live hollow existences that each of them has come to loathe. Relationships that Edward starts with Celia Coplestone and that Lavinia starts with Peter Quilpe prove fruitless and unsatisfying. Once the pretenses of husband and wife are unmasked, they learn to love each other, and are at last “lain” in their “chambers,” as their last name suggests. The last cocktail party held in this home shows that Edward and Lavinia have grown closer together, and Guardians toast to the partial success they have had.
Harcourt-Reilly’s consulting room
Harcourt-Reilly’s consulting room. Office of the psychotherapist Sir Henry Harcourt-Reilly. The office is arranged so that Sir Henry can manipulate the entrances and exits and meetings of people at his will. His consulting room functions like the central office for a spy network. Along with the other two Guardians, Mrs. Julia Shuttlethwaite and Alexander MacColgie Gibbs, these three function like the Greek Fates who shared an eye between them as they wove the tapestry of people’s lives. Sir Harcourt-Reilly sings about “One-Eyed Riley” and Mrs. Shuttlethwaite—whose name suggests weaving—is constantly looking for her glasses with only one lens. Alex completes this seemingly all-knowing trio with his globetrotting habits for gathering information about patients. Sir Henry ultimately sends Celia to her martyrdom, while salvaging the marriage of the Chamberlaynes, and trying to help Peter, whose future remains uncertain at the end of the play. For all of their insights and schemes, the Guardians prove limited in their ability to shape and direct lives.
Historical Context
The Welfare State
After World War II concluded in 1945, Great Britain faced the challenge of repaying the debts accumulated during the conflict. Although fewer soldiers were killed compared to World War I—250,000 as opposed to 750,000—the cost of the machinery needed for combat was significantly higher. Unlike in America, where returning veterans found factories and businesses largely intact, many of Britain's crucial industrial centers had been devastated by German air raids. Throughout the war, the British economy was supported by American loans through the Lend-Lease program, established in 1941 specifically to assist during the war. However, on August 21, 1945, less than a week after the Pacific war ended, American aid ceased. This led to an economic crisis in England in the subsequent years.
In 1946, Parliament passed a National Health Service bill, making healthcare services free for all citizens. This marked the beginning of increased government involvement in the economy, as certain industries were nationalized and placed under government control. The coal industry was nationalized in 1946, putting the government in charge of over eight hundred private companies with 1,634 coal pits nationwide. In 1947, electricity, transportation, airlines, and radio stations were also nationalized. By 1948, approximately 20 percent of British workers were either employed by the government or working for public corporations.
The extensive government control over essential goods and services resulted in tax rates for British citizens that Americans would consider unimaginable, with some reaching over 80 percent. While ordinary working people appreciated the security of cradle-to-grave health coverage and unemployment payments, the wealthiest citizens, who did not depend on government services, viewed this system as a...
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drain on their income. Many professionals in high-paying, internationally recognized fields—such as the film industry—migrated to America to retain more of their earnings. Others remained in Britain out of national pride and paid their share of taxes. It wasn't until the early 1980s, when Conservative governments came to power in major Western nations, that the British Welfare State was dismantled, returning utilities and basic services to private ownership under the belief that profit-driven operations would lead to greater efficiency.
British Drama
The 1940s marked an unusual blend on the British stage, combining traditional elements with the abstract and experimental styles that emerged during the modernist movement of the 1920s. For many years, British playwrights had endeavored to write plays in poetic verse, aiming to revive the tradition that began in ancient Greece and continued through the works of Shakespeare. Alfred, Lord Tennyson, writing in the 1870s, was succeeded in this effort to revive verse drama by several writers from the early 20th century through the 1930s, including John Masefield, Lascelles Abercrombie, and John Drinkwater. However, these writers often lacked a compelling reason to use verse, other than to pay homage to classical authors. Meanwhile, most drama leaned towards realism, reflecting human experiences authentically without drawing attention to the author's hand. Young playwrights were gaining recognition for the provocative nature of their works, rather than their ability to mimic historical styles.
Eliot was one of the dramatists who successfully crafted convincing verse drama, managing the style with such skill that it was not distracting. Other contemporaries, notably W.H. Auden and Christopher Frye, also contributed to raising awareness of the potential for coherent drama using poetic language. For Eliot, theory played a critical role in his drama, as he aimed not only to employ an antiquated style but also to convey religious ideas through his works. While drama originally served as a tool for religious instruction, by the mid-twentieth century, playwrights focused more on exploring social behavior. Much of Eliot's drama may appear stiff and artificial unless audiences understand that the traditions underpinning his work were even more removed from realism.
Literary Style
Setting
Dramas typically unfold in more confined settings compared to other literary forms, like novels, which rely on the reader's imagination. The Cocktail Party is especially limited, featuring only two primary settings. The majority of the action occurs in the drawing room of the Chamberlayne house. This setting highlights several crucial aspects of the situation presented. It immediately establishes the characters' upper social class, offering insights into their worldview. It also depicts the kind of order that Edward and Lavinia are accustomed to, which helps to explain why, despite their troubles, they are willing to renew their relationship. In the first act, the setting creates an inherent sense of dramatic tension, as it is clear that Edward's story about Lavinia visiting an aunt is a fabrication. The audience observes him awkwardly navigating the cocktail party that Lavinia organized, feeling uncomfortable in his own home. After the party ends, Edward's attempts to maintain secrecy remain strained, as characters continue to come and go while he attempts serious conversations with Peter and Celia. He is trapped by his social image, and the constant presence of others in his home reinforces this idea.
The transition in setting from the Chamberlayne flat to Sir Henry Harcourt-Reilly's office in act 2 significantly alters the play's mood. While act 1 has an air of superficiality, focusing on an unhappy, henpecked husband indecisive about his marriage, the scene in the psychiatrist's office is more intimate and addresses serious matters of fate. Here, Edward and Lavinia confront truths about themselves, while Celia admits a profound truth: that there are no answers, only the quest. This shift in setting allows Eliot to engage the audience with the play's deep, philosophical issues in a way that would be less impactful if the action had remained in the drawing room.
Trickster
The "trickster" is a well-known character in global literature, often featured in the myths of various oral traditions. Typically, the trickster is depicted as an animal, such as a coyote in the tales of the Native Americans of the southwest and the Chaco in South America, or a tortoise in the folklore of the Yoruba people of Nigeria. In many of these ancient narratives, the trickster is a figure who, despite being threatened by stronger and larger adversaries, manages to outsmart them. This basic story element has evolved in Western culture, particularly through the folk tales collected by the Brothers Grimm in the nineteenth century. In older stories, the trickster uses cunning to escape difficult situations, while in more recent stories, the trickster disrupts established settings, exploiting and deceiving people by cleverly manipulating their expectations.
In this play, Sir Henry is initially introduced as the Unidentified Guest, adding an air of mystery that aligns him with the trickster archetype. Throughout the first act, his concealed secrets leave the audience questioning his intentions. When the second act reveals him to be a psychiatrist who has cleverly manipulated each of the main characters, he appears less threatening but equally enigmatic. Lavinia's exclamation, "Are you a devil or merely a lunatic practical joker?" upon discovering Sir Henry's extensive control over her actions, underscores this. The devil, often depicted as a trickster who deceives people into actions they wouldn't normally take, represents a modern incarnation of the trickster, who manipulates reality by altering the truths people believe. Today, the trickster figure is frequently portrayed as a practical joker, leading people to believe in falsehoods purely for amusement, without any malicious intent.
Repartee
The term "repartee" denotes witty banter, characterized by clever but often superficial observations and retorts typical of social settings in plays. The cocktail party that opens this play features the kind of seemingly trivial dialogue that marked Oscar Wilde's comedies in the late nineteenth century. By the 1920s, "sophisticated" comedies, known for their rapid-fire witticisms among affluent characters, became staples of Broadway theater. While many of these comedies lacked depth, the works of Noel Coward have endured and remain entertaining when performed today. This style of cocktail party repartee was famously performed by the husband-and-wife duo Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fountaine, who starred in sophisticated comedies from the 1920s through the 1950s.
The banter in typical drawing-room comedies often centers around gossip, with the idle wealthy showcasing their cleverness by making remarks, sometimes quite mean, about those who are absent. In The Cocktail Party, the anecdote about Lady Klootz and the wedding cake exemplifies the kind of idle social chatter common in these comedies. Julia, who narrates the story, frequently loses her place and is interrupted by others who praise the story.
Like much of the play, the witty humor in the first act serves as a deceptive start, parodying more superficial works. The Lady Klootz story is echoed in the final act by the tale of Celia's fate, which is shared as gossip but not to showcase the speaker's wit. Ultimately, instead of engaging in sharp repartee about social acquaintances, all the characters become introspective and awkward, each reflecting on how this death impacts them.
Compare and Contrast
1940s: Psychiatrists primarily treat patients by delving into their past experiences and engaging in conversations. This often involves committing patients to sanatoriums for intensive psychotherapy.
Today: Modern psychiatry largely focuses on how physical imbalances contribute to psychological issues. The most effective treatments combine psychoanalysis with medication.
1949: A wealthy individual feeling overwhelmed by life's stresses might choose to stay at a sanatorium for therapy and counseling.
Today: People frequently discuss their therapy openly. Wealthy individuals now have a variety of retreats and spas to escape to for stress relief.
1949: Divorce is uncommon and socially frowned upon. Consequently, literature often depicts marriage as a trap that confines people against their better judgment and desires.
Today: Divorce rates have surged globally since the 1970s, with up to 50 percent of marriages ending in divorce in some industrialized nations. This has led to recent studies examining the negative effects of giving up on marriage too easily.
1949: Third-world countries, like the fictional "Kinkanja" in the play, are viewed as perilous and hostile, where civilized individuals may fall prey to savage lawlessness.
Today: While the fear of being cannibalized by savages has diminished, political unrest poses a genuine threat to travelers. American and British citizens are sometimes targeted by terrorists to make political statements.
Media Adaptations
While recordings of The Cocktail Party do not exist, there are numerous recordings of T. S. Eliot reciting his own works. A notable recent release is T. S. Eliot Reads, an audiocassette recorded in 1955 and released in 2000 by Harper Audio Books. This collection features chorus segments from Murder in the Cathedral.
Bibliography and Further Reading
SOURCES:
Donoghue, Denis, "The Cocktail Party," in the Third Voice,
Princeton University Press, 1959.
Goldman, Michael, "Fear in the Way: The Design of Eliot's Drama," in Eliot in His Time, Princeton University Press, 1973.
Headings, Philip R., "The Tougher Self," in T. S. Eliot, Twayne Publishers, 1964, pp. 143-186.
Moody, A. D., Thomas Stearns Eliot: Poet, Cambridge University Press, 1979, p. 365.
Pinion, F. B., A T. S. Eliot Companion, Barnes and Noble Books, 1986, p. 241.
FURTHER READING:
Bush, Ronald, T. S. Eliot: A Study in Character and Style, Oxford
University Press, 1983.
This book combines biography with literary criticism, concentrating on Eliot's
poetry and his artistic theories.
Cahill, Audrey F., T. S. Eliot and The Human Predicament, University
of Natal Press, 1967.
While primarily addressing Eliot's other plays, this text offers some
background on his philosophical views.
Crawford, Robert, The Savage and the City in the Works of T. S.
Eliot, Clarendon Press, 1987.
This book provides an analysis of Eliot's work through archetypes like savages
and devils, with The Cocktail Party being a notable example.
Gardner, Helen, The Art of T. S. Eliot, E. P. Dutton & Co.,
1959.
Published during Eliot's lifetime, this book offers a comprehensive overview of
his career as a dramatist.
Kirk, Russell, Eliot and His Age: T. S. Eliot's Moral Imagination in the
20th Century, Random House, 1972.
Kirk's study is particularly engaging as it was written during a period of
moral transition.
Peacock, R., "Eliot's Contribution to Criticism of Drama," in The
Literary Criticism of T. S. Eliot, edited by David Newton-DeMolma, The
Athlone Press, 1977, pp. 89-110.
Peacock directly connects Eliot's studies of Elizabethan drama with his own
stage works.