men, enriching the theatrical narrative.

Despite financial challenges from 1977 onward due to Arts Council subsidy reductions, the field of alternative theater continued to flourish. The fourth phase witnessed the rise of numerous female and gay playwrights who, building on the groundwork laid in previous decades, crafted more confident and resonant voices. Among them were Caryl Churchill, Michelene Wandor, Pam Gems, Mary O'Malley, Nell Dunn, and Claire Luckham, who expanded the theatrical discourse on gender and sexuality.

Caryl Churchill and "Cloud Nine"

Caryl Churchill's play Cloud Nine exemplifies the era's artistic exploration of gender and sexual politics. With humor and sensitivity, Churchill addresses the feminist concern about restrictive gender roles robbing women of power, while also incorporating themes of homosexuality and colonial oppression. Her approach aligns with socialist feminism, linking colonialism with capitalism's ruthless expansion, with patriarchy and capitalism dominating the first act through the character Clive. In contrast, the second act focuses on Victoria and Betty, who challenge and expand their sex-related roles.

"Playwrights don’t give answers, they ask questions."

Churchill's work breaks new ground by intertwining gay and feminist politics, presenting a socialist feminist perspective of the 1970s sexual revolution. While some critics, including feminists, have faulted the play for not offering solutions to the depicted struggles, Churchill's intent is not to provide definitive answers. Instead, she presents portraits of individuals grappling with prescribed roles and seeking liberation through self-acceptance and openness to possibilities, rather than seeking a "right" answer.

Through her vivid stage pictures and compelling portrayals, Churchill challenges audiences to confront their assumptions and consider the spectrum of possibilities beyond prescriptive roles and solutions. Her work exemplifies the vibrant and transformative spirit of the 1970s, a decade that redefined gender and sexual politics through both legislative achievements and cultural expressions.

The use of innovative theatrical techniques is a hallmark of the play discussed here, challenging conventional norms and offering a vivid commentary on gender roles and societal structures. This work defies expectations with its gender-reversal casting and temporal leaps, creating a rich tapestry of layered meanings and themes. Through these stylistic choices, the play explores the complexities of identity, power dynamics, and transformation.

Gender Reversals

A central technique employed in the play is the casting of actors in roles of opposite genders, designed to subvert traditional gender stereotypes. This choice emphasizes the theme of challenging societal expectations. For instance, the character of Edward, portrayed as a nine-year-old boy, is played by a woman, visually underscoring how his behavior deviates from the Victorian ideals his family holds. Similarly, Betty's role is enacted by a man, illustrating her internalized perception of needing to conform to male desires rather than embracing her identity as a woman. This casting choice highlights Betty’s hidden nature, unknown to both herself and those around her. Joshua, on the other hand, is played by a white man, symbolizing his acceptance of the values imposed by his white employers.

In the second act, most characters are portrayed by actors of their actual gender, marking a shift in their journeys toward self-discovery. Betty’s portrayal by a woman reflects her personal growth, as she begins to understand her own identity. Edward, now played by a man, presents a confident acceptance of his gay identity. An exception is made with Cathy, a four-year-old girl played by a man, echoing the gender-bending techniques of the first act. This decision disrupts expectations of typical female behavior, as Cathy enjoys rough games and plays with a toy gun. Churchill observed that a man’s presence on stage aptly captured the emotional intensity of young children, adding another layer to the theatrical experience.

Structural Innovations

Another distinctive feature of the play is its unique structure, where characters from the first act appear in the second act, despite a century-long narrative gap. This temporal leap is ingeniously managed by having characters age only twenty-five years, allowing the continuity of their stories while exploring broader societal changes.

There is a notable shift between the two acts as well. The first act is predominantly male-driven with Clive at the helm, exerting control to maintain his ideal order. However, the second act reverses this dynamic, showcasing the rise of women and gay characters who embrace transformation and alternative ways of living. Characters who were once powerless, particularly Betty, find themselves gaining control over their own lives. This transformation is further emphasized in the play’s original staging, where the actor playing Clive transitions to the role of Cathy in the second act, symbolizing the disempowerment of old ideologies in contemporary settings. In this act, Martin finds himself navigating the evolving feminist landscape, unlike Clive, who sought to impose traditional norms.

The Illusion of Resolution

The structure of the play cleverly critiques conventional narrative resolutions, particularly in the conclusion of act one. The ending mimics that of a romantic comedy, where conflicts are resolved, harmony is restored, love prevails, and celebrations ensue with a wedding. Clive’s speech in rhymed verse concludes on an ostensibly positive note: "All murmuring of discontent is stilled. / Long may you live in peace and joy and bliss." However, this façade of contentment is quickly shattered. Beneath the surface, discontent simmers as Clive’s son is hit in a quarrel over a doll, and the marriage celebrated is a mere façade, with both Ellen and Harry hiding their true sexual orientations. Meanwhile, the threat of violence looms with a drunken Joshua poised to shoot Clive. The apparent comedic resolution is thus exposed as an illusion, reflecting the complexity and contradictions of societal norms.

1880: The British Empire is at the zenith of its influence, governing over a quarter of the world's land, including significant areas in Africa.

1980: Britain has long abandoned its imperial ambitions and is now a medium-sized European nation, participating in the European Community (EC). There is an ongoing discussion in Britain regarding the extent of national sovereignty that should be ceded to the EC's administration.

Today: The colonial past of Britain is evident in the sometimes strained race relations within its now multi-ethnic society. Most non-white Britons are descendants of Asian or West Indian immigrants, former subjects of the British Empire, who began arriving in the 1950s. In 2001, racial tensions led to riots in three northern English cities.

1880: Women in Britain are denied the right to vote and have limited educational opportunities. In affluent families, a woman's role is primarily domestic, managing the household and hosting guests. Only women from working-class backgrounds are employed for wages, often in the textile sector or as domestic workers.

1980: The women's movement has become a formidable influence in British society, and gender or marital status discrimination is outlawed. Margaret Thatcher becomes the first female prime minister, and the number of women in professional roles and the workforce increases, although their wages still trail behind those of men.

Today: Economic disparities between genders persist. In Britain, women earn just 81 percent of what men do. Women continue to face hurdles in their careers, including the so-called glass ceiling—a subtle yet real barrier hindering their advancement to top positions in business.

1880: The burgeoning suffragette movement, advocating for women's voting rights and professional access, brings more women into the theater industry. Many actresses take significant roles in producing and performing plays.

1980: The women's liberation movement of the 1970s leads to a surge in plays written and produced by women, often exploring issues crucial to women's lives.

Today: Young female playwrights embark on their careers with confidence in their equality with men. However, women in British theater argue for greater access to funding and resources, more women in leadership roles in theater management, and increased production of plays by women in major theaters.

Sources

Aston, Elaine, Caryl Churchill, Northcote House, 1997, pp. 31–37.

Churchill, Caryl, Cloud Nine, in Plays, Methuen, 1985, pp. 245–320.

Fanon, Frantz, Black Skins, White Masks, Grove Press, 1967.

Lloyd Evans, Gareth, and Barbara Lloyd Evans, Plays in Review, 1956–1980: British Drama and the Critics, Batsford Academic and Educational, 1985, pp. 235–36.

Millett, Kate, Sexual Politics, Virago, 1977.

Wandor, Michelene, Carry On, Understudies: Theatre and Sexual Politics, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986.

Weintraub, Erica Beth, ‘‘Caryl Churchill,’’ in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 13: British Dramatists Since World War II, edited by Stanley Weintraub, Gale Research, 1982, pp. 118–24.

Further Reading

Betsko, Kathleen, and Rachel Koenig, Interviews with Contemporary Women Playwrights, William Morrow, 1987, pp. 75–84. In this interview, Churchill discusses her plays, including Cloud Nine, Top Girls, Fen, and others.

Gray, Francis, ‘‘Mirrors of Utopia: Caryl Churchill and Joint Stock,’’ in British and Irish Drama since 1960, edited by James Acheson, St. Martin’s, 1993, pp. 47–59. Gray explores the significant impact of the plays produced from Churchill’s collaboration with the Joint Stock Company, which infused her work with political themes. He provides an analysis of Cloud Nine.

Itzin, Catherine, Stages in the Revolution: Political Theatre in Britain since 1968, Eyre Methuen, 1980. This book offers a chronological overview of the evolution of what Itzin refers to as the theater of political change from 1968 to 1978. It includes discussions on Churchill and the key women's theatre companies of the era, as well as other groups that provided platforms for women writers and performers.

Wandor, Michelene, Drama Today: A Critical Guide to British Drama, 1970–1990, Longman, 1993. This guide provides an overview of themes, authors, and works in modern British drama. Wandor examines Churchill alongside writers such as Nell Dunn, Harold Pinter, Edward Bond, Alan Ayckbourn, and others.