The 1960s/1970s Counterculture
The Chocolate War was crafted in the early 1970s and saw publication in 1974. The narrative unfolds with minimal reference to the broader world. Hence, Chapter 3 holds considerable importance. In this chapter, Jerry, after discreetly browsing a copy of Playboy taken from the top shelf of a magazine rack, engages in a conversation with a provocative drop-out at a bus stop. Cormier's portrayal of the group from which this confrontational young man emerges is both detailed and varied. "They were now part of the scenery like the Civil War Cannon and the World War Monuments, the flagpole. Hippies. Flower Children. Street People. Drifters. Drop-Outs. Everybody had a different name for them." Essentially, they represent the counterculture that flourished in America during the late 1960s and remained a prominent cultural and social force in 1974. Jerry is derided by their spokesperson as a "square," someone constrained by his neat uniform, adherence to rules, and his guilt (recently shown in his memory of hurriedly disposing of the only pornographic magazine he dared to bring home).

It is important to note that Cormier avoids using terms like "protesters" or "draft-dodgers" to describe this group. They are not depicted as political activists but as social outcasts. Fred Inglis, in his book The Promise of Happiness: Value and Meaning in Children's Fiction, suggests that Cormier "sounds like another disillusioned radical from the 1968 generation, of Miami and the siege of Chicago. The radical moral embraced after some time at Nixon's Pentagon was that all forms of authority and institutions were destructive, and all would, in their ruthless and efficient manner, crush the individual's spirit." However, cautious analysis of the book and its cultural background differentiates between the resonance it found with its readers, as noted by Inglis, and the deeper objectives of the author. Brother Leon's morally corrupt classroom simulation of Nazi Germany is used by Cormier to criticize both Leon and the other students. Jerry, despite developing a strong dislike for Leon, remains unaffected by the heavy-handed political message of the lesson. His instinct is not to protest but to escape: "He wished he wasn't here in the classroom. He wanted to be out on the football field, fading back, looking for a receiver."

Fundraising and Private Education
Fundraising has played, and continues to play, a vital role in the yearly budget of private schools like Trinity. It is also significant in public schools, where parents and student organizations raise funds for extracurricular programs, including sports, music, and clubs. Typically, student involvement in annual raffles, sales, or other fundraising events is not controversial. However, what sets the Trinity sale apart is the imposition of quotas on students, the abrupt doubling of these quotas (alongside a doubling in chocolate prices), the obligation to meet these quotas, and the deceitful nature of Leon's secret arrangement with the Vigils.

Set in a prestigious Catholic high school in New England, The Chocolate War unfolds during the late 1960s or early 1970s. While it delves into broad philosophical and political themes, the novel is undeniably reflective of its era. At the time it was written, American society was emerging from the 1960s, a decade marked by significant social upheaval. During this period, government policies regarding the Vietnam War, civil rights reforms, and other controversial issues were under intense public examination. There was widespread opposition to institutional decisions, with acts of personal conviction and open defiance creating deep divisions across the nation. Government bodies, college administrations, and churches frequently faced challenges. Cormier's assertion that his novel embodies the saying "to not resist is to assist" resonates with the popular 1960s slogan, "If you're not part of the solution, you're part of the problem."

An even more fitting backdrop for the themes of The Chocolate War is the infamous Watergate scandal, which shook the nation and led to President Richard Nixon's resignation just before the novel was published. Watergate became a symbol of power abuse, the influence of small groups on policy-making, and the use of "dirty tricks" to suppress dissent, mirroring the atmosphere at Trinity School in The Chocolate War.

The Chocolate War provides a haunting look into the intricacies of human society and relationships, delivering its impactful message through a variety of literary techniques that add depth and emotion to the author's vision. Cormier's appreciation for Ernest Hemingway's style and Graham Greene's mastery of symbolism is clearly reflected in his own work.

The story's perspective frequently shifts from one character to another. This, combined with regular interior monologues, sheds light on the complex relationships and motivations of the characters. Similar to Hemingway, Cormier infuses his dialogue and interior monologues with significant meaning. Simple yet vivid metaphors—presented in short, concise sentences—consistently hint at thematic elements. Even the seemingly mundane description of Jerry Renault's tryout for the football team in the first chapter foreshadows the challenges he will encounter. His decision to either remain down or rise and demonstrate his resolve soon becomes central to the novel.

"No. I'm not going to sell the chocolates." Cities fell. Earth opened. Planets tilted. Stars plummeted. And the awful silence.
On a more sophisticated level, Cormier often references Shakespeare, the Bible, and, in one significant instance, the work of poet T. S. Eliot. Some critics have even drawn comparisons between Jerry Renault and Hamlet, another young man who is indecisive yet determined to confront societal injustices. The poster Jerry places in his locker features a passage from T. S. Eliot's poem "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," highlighting man's struggle to act on his ideals.

While many readers accept Cormier's denial of harboring an anti-Christian sentiment, it's challenging to overlook his symbolic portrayal of Trinity as a place where the principles of charity and acceptance take a backseat to personal gain and self-preservation. Even the cross worn by Brother Leon is scarcely recognizable as such. Jerry Renault may be interpreted as a Christ-like figure—young, solitary in his commitment to his ideals, and an inspiration to others. He nearly becomes the leader of a rebellion against religious and political authority. His principled nature ultimately leads to his downfall, while authority remains indifferent.

Another symbolic layer in The Chocolate War is Cormier's ingenious use of character names. It is no accident that Obie "obeys" authority; Archie's name conjures images of both an "archbishop" and "archfiend," or Satan, a fallen archangel; and Leon's name suggests both blandness and the fierceness of a lion. The Vigils seize power like vigilantes, with their meetings resembling religious "vigils" overseen by "Archie."

The novel The Chocolate War has been a source of controversy since it debuted in the 1970s. Critics, parents, and educators have pointed to its political cynicism, pervasive sense of despair, and the emotionally charged moments involving sex and violence. While few would accuse Cormier of crafting sensationalist content or catering to "rebellious" youth, he has faced significant criticism for attempting to show young adults the harshness and cruelty of both their peers and the adult world.

This "negative atmosphere" is crucial to Cormier's theme and the essence of his characters. In fact, both adults and adolescents might find the novel less shocking, considering the trend in recent young adult literature to delve into specific and sensitive sexual and social issues.

The objections to the novel, including efforts by school boards to censor it, mainly focus on the bleak philosophy that Cormier seems to promote. Critics argue that the author presents a dismal view of society, steering readers towards feelings of depression and apathy, and implying that they should give up hope in fighting corruption and striving for a better world. In truth, The Chocolate War effectively illustrates that literature does not have to rely on happy endings, heroic climaxes, or the typical triumph of good over evil. Cormier also challenges the notion that "good guys" and "bad guys" are easily identifiable. He invites readers into a more mature literary experience, asserting that only an unflinching view of reality equips young people to combat the evils depicted in his novel. Cormier's work is a steadfast attempt to inspire acts of conscience and personal bravery.

The Chocolate War was turned into a movie in 1988, directed by Keith Gordon. The film featured John Glover as Brother Leon, Han Mitchell-Smith as Jerry, and Wally Ward as Archie. However, it did not receive much acclaim from audiences or critics. Washington Post film critic Hal Hinson remarked: "Though it has been adapted . . . from Robert Cormier's young adult novel . . . this film's true source seems to be every other schoolboy story ever told."

The film adaptation of The Chocolate War was released in 1988. It was produced by Jonathan D. Krane and Simon R. Lewis, with Keith Gordon as the director. The cast included John Glover as Brother Leon, Han Mitchell-Smith as Jerry, and Wally Ward as Archie. This film is available through the Management Company Entertainment Group.

In 1977, an edited version of the novel was released as a sound recording, narrated by Andrew Jarkowsky and published by Westminster on a single audio cassette.

In 1988, a complete, unabridged audio version of the novel was made available. It was read by Frank Muller and recorded on four audio cassettes, released by Old Greenwich Listening Library.

Campbell, Patricia. Presenting Robert Cormier. New York: Twayne, 1985. This is an in-depth critical analysis of Cormier's novels and stories, featuring interviews and discussions on style and meaning.

Clements, Bruce. "A Second Look: The Chocolate War." Horn Book (April 1979): 217. This review delves into the controversy surrounding the novel.

Commire, Anne, ed. Something about the Author. Vol. 10. Detroit: Gale Research, 1976. Provides an extensive overview of Cormier's career and literary aspirations. Contemporary Literary Criticism. Vol. 12. Detroit: Gale Research, 1980. Compiles a diverse range of reviews and critiques of Cormier, with a particular focus on The Chocolate War.

Donelson, Kenneth L., and Alleen Pace. Literature for Today's Young Adults. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1980. Offers a concise overview of the novels and their significance.

Evory, Anne, ed. Contemporary Authors, New Revision Series. Vol. 5. Detroit: Gale Research, 1981. An encyclopedic entry that covers Cormier's early works.

Lukens, Rebecca. "From Salinger to Cormier: Disillusionment to Despair in Thirty Years." ALAN Review (Fall 1981): 3. Discusses the shift in the portrayal of adolescents in literature over three decades.

Stanek, Lou Willett. A Teacher's Guide to the Paperback Edition of "The Chocolate War" by Robert Cormier. New York: Dell, 1975. A brief yet insightful survey of the novel, including teaching suggestions and analysis of style and themes.

Sutton, Roger. "The Critical Myth: Realistic YA Novels." School Library Journal (November 1982): 33. Examines realism in young adult novels, highlighting Cormier as a notable realist.

Sources
Norma Bagnall, "Realism: How Realistic Is It? A Look at The Chocolate War," in Top of the News, Vol. 36, No. 2, Winter 1980, pp. 214-17.

Fred Inglis, "Love And Death In Children's Novels," in his book The Promise Of Happiness: Value And Meaning in Children's Fiction, Cambridge University Press, 1981, pp. 271-291.

Sylvia Patterson Iskander, "Robert Cormier," in Concise Dictionary of American Literary Biography, Broadening Views 1968-1988, Gale, 1989, pp. 34-51.

Nancy Veglahn, article in The Lion And The Unicorn: A Critical Journal of Children's Literature, June 1988, pp. 12-18.

For Further Study
Authors and Artists for Young Adults, Vol. 19, Gale, 1996, pp. 65-76.
This volume provides a detailed profile, including insightful summaries of Cormier's other works and numerous references to contemporary reviews.

Betty Carter and Karen Hams, "Realism in Adolescent Fiction: In Defense of The Chocolate War," in Top of the News, Vol. 36, No. 3, Spring 1980, pp. 283-85.
This article directly addresses Norma Bagnall's essay from the previous issue of the journal.

Paul Hems, review of I Am the Cheese, in The Horn Book Magazine, Vol. Lm, No. 4, August 1977, pp. 427-28.
Hems, reviewing Cormier's subsequent work after The Chocolate War, describes it as "a novel in the tragic mode, cunningly wrought, shattering in its emotional implications."

Anne Scott MacLeod, "Robert Cormier and the Adolescent Novel," in Children's Literature in Education, Vol. 12, No. 2, Summer 1981, pp. 74-81.
This piece attempts to depict Cormier as a political novelist.

Anita Silvey, interview with Robert Cormier, Part I, in The Horn Book Magazine, Vol. LXI, No. 2, March-April 1985, pp. 145-55.
In this interview, Cormier discusses his initial reluctance to write a sequel to The Chocolate War.

Joe Stines, "Robert Cormier," in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 52 American Writers for Children since 1960, Gale, 1986, pp. 107-14.
This entry covers all of Cormier's work up to 1985, including his three early adult novels, and features a page from the penultimate draft of Beyond The Chocolate War, showcasing the author's revisions.