Historical Context
When Hellman wrote The Children's Hour in 1934, the United States was still struggling with the economic hardships of the Great Depression. Europe was also facing economic collapse, which fueled a political battle between fascism and other systems that eventually led to World War II in 1939.
The main figures in this European political turmoil were Adolf Hitler in Germany, Josef Stalin in the Soviet Union, and Benito Mussolini in Italy, each with ambitions of global domination. However, there were other significant players as well. In 1934, Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss attempted to suppress political opposition by banning all parties except his Fatherland Front. In Bulgaria, fascists, with the king's support, staged a coup to seize political control. Even France, a strong democratic republic, teetered on the brink of civil war due to political corruption denounced by both extreme left and right factions. Meanwhile, in Germany, the National Socialist Party (Nazis) conducted a violent purge, eliminating dozens of party members accused of plotting against Hitler, including Ernst Röhm and Gregor Strasser, along with their more radical faction of the Nazi Party.
Hellman, a cosmopolitan writer who had spent time in Paris during the 1920s, was deeply concerned about the events unfolding in Europe in the 1930s. With her German-Jewish background and liberal views, she was a committed anti-fascist. Over the years, she dedicated her time, money, and artistic efforts to this cause, even returning to Europe in 1937 to observe the loyalist struggle against Franco and the royalists in the Spanish Civil War. However, most Americans, preoccupied with their own economic struggles, showed little interest in Europe's growing instability. Many adhered to the isolationist policy that had gained popularity after World War I, believing that America should focus on its own problems rather than international issues. The "America First" movement was strong, aiming to keep the United States free from new foreign entanglements.
The nation was also preoccupied with addressing poverty and unemployment. To mitigate the Depression's effects on writers, the federal government, under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, established the Federal Writers' Project in 1934 as part of the Works Progress Administration (WPA). Led by Henry G. Alsberg, this project provided work for hundreds of writers, many of whom were considered too radical by conservatives. By this time, the Group Theatre had been producing plays of "social significance" for three years, including Clifford Odets's Waiting for Lefty (1935) and Awake and Sing (1935), which promoted socialist ideas. This new thirst for social consciousness in serious art diminished the reputation of playwrights like Eugene O'Neill, whose works largely ignored political issues, focusing instead on exploring the human psyche and becoming increasingly autobiographical.
While The Children's Hour does not feature a political theme, it does suggest that Karen Wright and Martha Dobie have faced significant challenges in keeping their school operational, implying that the economic climate in America makes such endeavors highly precarious. They have, in fact, relied on the support and good will of Mrs. Tilford, a very influential dowager. However, the play's moral focus generally goes beyond specific economic and political issues. In some of her later works, notably Watch on the Rhine (1941) and Another Part of the Forest (1946), Hellman would clearly express her political views.
The play's notoriety stemmed from its candid lesbian theme, rather than the political views of its author. At the time, various groups, including federal, state, and local agencies, engaged in some form of censorship. A key example was the Hays Office, established in 1934 as a self-regulating production code oversight agency by the Motion Pictures Producers and Distributors of America, Inc. (MPPDA),...
(This entire section contains 624 words.)
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and led by former Postmaster General Will H. Hays. In compliance with the Hays Office's regulations, Hellman had to remove all references to the lesbian theme in her film adaptation of the play.
Style and Technique
Setting
The Children's Hour employs two primary settings. The first, seen in the opening and concluding acts, is the living and study room of the Wright-Dobie School for girls, situated in a converted farmhouse roughly ten miles from Lancet, a rural town in Massachusetts. The second setting, featured in both scenes of the second act, is the living room of Mrs. Tilford's house, presumably located in Lancet.
The setting is crucial to the play, as it reflects a small-town mentality and close-knit community—where gossip spreads quickly. This is evident in the grocery boy's snickering in the third act. The community's ostracism of Karen and Martha creates an oppressive atmosphere, making Martha's suicide believable. The women are deeply affected by their community's judgment, leading them to believe that their alleged misconduct will haunt them wherever they go, making escape from their notoriety seem impossible.
Structure
The Children's Hour features a traditional, linear plot divided into three acts, a common format for playwrights of that era. The formal divisions into acts and scenes signify a change in time, with each segment ending at a pivotal moment, adhering to the tradition of strong scene closures at the curtain. These elements contribute to what is known as a well-made play, a fundamental technique in melodrama, whether good or bad.
The play’s structure follows a strict chronological order, covering about eight months, starting in April and ending in November. A significant event during this period is the civil suit brought by Karen and Martha against Mrs. Tilford. Although not shown on stage, its devastating impact reverberates throughout the final act of the play.
Realism
Hellman adheres strictly to the conventions of the realistic problem play. The Children's Hour is perfectly suited to the box set with its invisible fourth wall, allowing the audience to observe the unfolding drama. The play employs no devices or techniques that break the illusion of reality.
From start to finish, the characters act and speak like real people in a believable situation. Their dialogue, though focused and consistent, captures the natural rhythm and tone of real speech. The action, while not typical, remains entirely within the realm of possibility. Even Mary's psychopathic behavior, though unexplained, is disturbingly realistic and its consequences entirely plausible.
Foreshadowing
To preserve the illusion of reality, Hellman avoids various theatrical devices and conventions. However, she prepares her audience to accept future events through preceding hints or clues. Hellman primarily uses character development to foreshadow actions, particularly with Lily Mortar, Mary Tilford, and Martha Dobie.
From the outset of the play, Lily's self-centered nature is evident. Her vanity thrives on the compliments from her students, making her an easy target for Mary. She clings to her imagined past achievements and avoids current responsibilities. Consequently, her refusal to return from Europe to testify at Karen and Martha's trial seems almost inevitable.
Mary's deceptive behavior, including her lies, manipulative flattery, feigned heart attack, and abusive treatment of classmates, sets the stage for the audience to accept her malicious accusations against Karen and Martha as consistent with her character. While Karen and Martha sense something deeply wrong with Mary, she easily deceives Lily Mortar and intimidates most of her peers. Although Agatha, Mrs. Tilford's maid, and Dr. Cardin see through Mary, their advice is ignored by Mrs. Tilford once she believes Mary's fabricated story.
Martha's eventual confession of her romantic feelings for Karen and her subsequent suicide are hinted at earlier in the play. Her nervousness and angry outbursts towards her aunt reveal a troubled spirit. Her fear of losing Karen is clear in her jealousy of Joe Cardin and her mixed feelings about Karen and Joe's upcoming marriage. Mrs. Mortar's sharp comment about Martha's "unnatural" feelings for Karen and past friends foreshadows Martha's emotional turmoil, culminating in her confused confession in the final act.
Irony
Hellman employs irony in The Children's Hour, a common tool for realists that enhances dramatic impact without breaking the illusion of reality. Dramatic irony arises when there is a gap between what the characters know and what the audience knows or expects. Such scenes are suspenseful as the audience anticipates the moment of "recognition," when a character realizes their ignorance. This can have a powerful effect. The most striking example in The Children's Hour occurs in the third act, when Mrs. Tilford confronts Karen, oblivious to Martha's suicide. The revelation shatters Mrs. Tilford's composure as she grasps the irreversible harm she has caused and the guilt she must bear.
A subtler form of irony appears at the end of the second act, when Rosalie Wells corroborates Mary's false claims that Rosalie witnessed Martha and Karen's intimate moment. This situation is doubly ironic because Rosalie's credibility is bolstered by her previous animosity towards Mary. Karen had deliberately chosen Rosalie as Mary's roommate, believing Mary had no influence over her. However, only the two girls and the audience are aware that Mary is blackmailing Rosalie.
Compare and Contrast
1930s: The Great Depression inflicts severe suffering on America, prompting President Franklin D. Roosevelt to implement "New Deal" policies aimed at mitigating the hardship. These reforms include social welfare programs intended to help the poor and dispossessed. Conservatives criticize these measures as socialistic, and some of the reforms are deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
Today: A relatively strong economy and nearly full employment present a stark contrast to the conditions of the Great Depression. Civil rights reforms and social welfare programs, some tracing back to the liberalism of the 1930s, are now facing opposition from both moderates and conservatives. Despite re-electing Democrat Bill Clinton as president in 1996, the nation demonstrated its anti-liberal sentiment by electing a Republican majority in both houses of Congress.
1930s: Both private and public agencies exert significant control over the arts. "Bannings" are common in theaters, especially in cities like Boston, where the mayor, backed by religious groups, threatens to shut down productions that violate the community's moral standards. In the film industry, the Hays Office enforces strict regulations, prohibiting nudity, suggestions of sex acts or seduction, passionate kissing, and the use of profane or obscene language.
Today: Although film rating codes exist, they mainly serve as parental guides rather than restrictions on filmmakers. Violent behavior, obscenity, nudity, and graphic sex are prevalent in R- and X-rated films. Commercial television avoids explicit nudity, sex, and language due to pressure from religious conservatives and concerns about losing advertising revenue. The stage, however, broke free from community standards earlier, allowing nudity and vulgarity as early as the 1960s.
1930s: In America, openly same-sex relationships are unthinkable. Most homosexuals stay "closeted," fearing that public exposure would cost them their jobs and community acceptance. Labeled as degenerates and perverts, many homosexuals experience profound moral shame and self-loathing.
Today: Many homosexuals have been "outed" through the gay liberation movement, and political correctness now advocates that "alternative orientations" should be treated with the same respect as heterosexual ones, rather than merely tolerated. Although some still view homosexuality as a perversion, public condemnation of gays is rare, and many celebrities, including political figures, have come out. The AIDS crisis has heightened public awareness of the gay movement.
1930s: While public education is expanding, many children attend sexually segregated private schools, some of which are very small and exclusive. These institutions proliferate due to inadequate public school funding.
Today: Although some sexually segregated private schools still exist, their numbers have significantly decreased. Support for private education briefly surged due to the racial desegregation of public schools. The high cost of private schooling has become prohibitive for most American families, leading some to opt for home schooling as an alternative to public education.
Adaptations
The Children's Hour was initially adapted into a film in 1936, titled These Three. This version was produced by United Artists and Goldwyn Pictures, directed by William Wyler, and scripted by Hellman, who had to completely omit the lesbian theme. The cast includes Miriam Hopkins as Martha Dobie, Merle Oberon as Karen Wright, Joel McCrea as Dr. Joe Cardin, and Alma Kruger as Mrs. Tilford. The film is available on video from Sultan Entertainment and can be found on the Internet Movie Database (http://uk.imdb.com).
In 1961, the play was adapted into a film once more, released under the titles The Children's Hour and The Loudest Whisper. This adaptation was produced by United Artists and the Minsch Company and also directed by William Wyler. The film stars Audrey Hepburn as Karen Wright, Shirley MacLaine as Martha Dobie, James Garner as Dr. Joe Cardin, and Faye Bainter as Mrs. Tilford. It is available on video from MGM/UA Home Entertainment, Facets Multimedia, and through the Internet Movie Database.
A 1995 documentary titled The Celluloid Closet, based on Vito Russo's 1981 book, explores gay themes (often subliminal) in films and discusses the 1961 adaptation of The Children's Hour. Narrated by Lily Tomlin, the documentary was directed and produced by Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman, featuring numerous celebrities who comment on the hidden and explicit portrayal of homosexuality in cinema. The documentary is available from Sony Classics and can also be accessed through the Internet Movie Database.
Bibliography
Sources
Atkinson, Brooks. Review of The Children's Hour in the New York Times, December 19, 1952, p. 35.
Atkinson, Brooks. "The Play—The Children's Hour, Being a Tragedy of Life in a Girls' Boarding House" in the New York Times, November 21, 1934, p. 23.
Beaufort, John. "Tragic 'Children's Hour'" in the Christian Science Monitor, December 27, 1952, p. 4.
Bentley, Eric. "Hellman's Indignation" in the New Republic, Vol CXXVII, January 5, 1953, pp. 30-31.
Bentley, Eric. "The American Drama 1944-1954" in American Drama and Its Critics, edited by Alan S. Downer, University of Chicago Press, 1965, p. 199.
Gniber, Ide. Review of The Children's Hour in Golden Book, Vol. XXI, February, 1935, p. 28A.
Hammond, Percy. "The Theatres—'The Children's Hour,' a Good Play about a Verboten Subject" in the New York Herald Tribune, November 21, 1934, p. 16.
Hellman, Lillian. Pentimento, New American Library, 1973, p. 127.
Hellman, Lillian. "Introduction" in Six Plays, Modern Library, 1960, pp. viii-ix.
Hobe. "Plays on Broadway; The Children's Hour" in Variety, December 24, 1952, p. 50.
Krutch, Joseph Wood. "Drama, The Heart of a Child" in the Nation, Vol. 139, December 5, 1934, p. 657.
Krutch, Joseph Wood. "The Tragic Fallacy" in Tragedy Vision and Form, edited by Robert W. Corrigan, second edition, Harper & Row, 1981, pp. 227-37.
Miller, Arthur. "Tragedy and the Common Man" in Tragedy Vision and Form, edited by Robert W. Corrigan, second edition, Harper & Row, 1981, pp. 168-70.
Further Reading
Adler, Jacob H. Lillian Hellman, Southern Writers Series, No. 4, Steck-Vaughn, 1969. A 44-page pamphlet, this brief study dedicates much of its limited space to discussing The Children's Hour. The work "also analyzes Hellman's artistic indebtedness to both Ibsen and Chekhov and the critical judgment that her plays often "lapse into melodrama."
Estern, Mark W. Lillian Hellman, Plays, Films, Memoirs: A Reference Guide, G.K. Hall, 1980. A primary source book for research, this is a recent annotated bibliography on Hellman, part of the "Reference Guide to Literature" series.
Falk, Doris V. Lillian Hellman, Frederick Ungar, 1978. A critical biography based on Hellman's work, this study presents a synopsis of each of Hellman's plays and also features discussions on realism, and the impact of the Depression and World War II on Hellman's craft.
Lederer, Katherine. Lillian Hellman, Twayne, 1979. A useful bio-critical study of Hellman, this work provides an excellent base for further study of the playwright's work. It begins with a biography, then covers all of Hellman's plays and nonfiction. It also includes a chronology and selected bibliography.
Moody, Richard. Lillian Hellman, Playwright, Pegasus, 1972. Both a biographical and critical study, the work covers all of the playwright's dramatic works. It includes a helpful summary of "Closed Doors, or, The Great Drumsheugh Case" (pp. 38-40) on which Hellman based her play.
Rollyson, Carl. Lillian Hellman: Her Legend and Her Legacy, St. Martin's, 1988. The most up-to-date, comprehensive, and detailed biography of Hellman, this study emphasizes the playwright's complex character, especially her many contradictions as seen in her various affairs and feuds. Several photographs are included.
Roughead, William. Bad Companions. Duffield and Green, 1931. This book features the essay "Closed Doors, or, The Great Drumsheugh Case," which inspired Hellman with the concept and foundational plot for The Children's Hour.
Turk, Ruth. Lillian Hellman - Rebel Playwright. Lerner, 1995. Although designed for young adults, this study is valuable for all readers and serves as a concise overview of Hellman's career. It includes several photographs and a brief bibliography suitable for younger researchers.
Wright, William. Lillian Hellman. Simon & Schuster, 1986. Published two years after Hellman's death in 1984, this critical biography aims to connect the "image" of Hellman with the "woman." It presents an intimate and respectful portrayal of the playwright, despite her efforts to hinder Wright's research.
