the long-awaited conception of a child, securing the Kix lineage and earning him the promise of financial support from the grateful couple.

Touchwood Senior and his wife willingly endure separation to manage their numerous offspring, showcasing their willingness to sacrifice for the greater good. This gesture is ultimately rewarded when they are reunited, their future assured by Sir Oliver’s patronage.

Final Reflections

The narrative of "A Chaste Maid in Cheapside" weaves together these richly detailed characters and their intersecting lives, providing a satirical glimpse into the complexities of social ambition, love, and deception. Through clever plot twists and sharp wit, Middleton crafts a comedy that reflects the chaotic interplay of personal desires and societal expectations in a vividly realized London setting.

A Chaste Maid in Cheapside, the sole surviving play believed to have been performed at the Swan Theatre, exemplifies Thomas Middleton’s flair for crafting farcical comedies. Produced during the prolific period between 1604 and 1612, the play is a masterclass in weaving humor with audacity, breaching the boundaries of chastity with its bawdy scenes and skillful hilarity. Its narrative deftly intertwines the chaotic affairs of multiple households, propelling the audience through a whirlwind of comedic scenarios that culminate in a satisfying resolution.

While the play primarily revels in its lighthearted and risqué subject matter, Middleton subtly embeds incisive commentary on the social mores of his time. One memorable sequence ridicules the much-despised police informers, turning them into figures of mockery. Another scene features a christening party where ostensibly devout Puritan women indulge in wine with a fervor that certainly exceeds the limits of decorum, illustrating a satirical take on hypocrisy and excess.

Cheapside in the Early Seventeenth Century

Audiences of the time would have immediately understood the humor in the play's title. In the early seventeenth century, the likelihood of encountering a virtuous maid in Cheapside was quite low. Technically, Cheapside—also referred to at times as West Cheap or simply Cheap—was a long, wide street running through a central part of London. It functioned as one of the city's marketplaces where merchants, like Mr. Yellowhammer the goldsmith from the play, sold their goods. However, this area was also known for its prostitutes, giving Cheapside a rather unsavory reputation.

Catholicism versus Protestantism

The unclear morality in Cheapside and throughout England might have stemmed from a constantly shifting religious landscape. In the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, England experienced the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, significant theological conflicts among various Christian denominations. The Reformation criticized corruption within the Roman Catholic Church, a movement led by figures such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, who established Lutheranism and Calvinism, respectively. In response, the Catholic Church implemented reforms and sought religious renewal. During this period, Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage of England's Henry VIII to Catherine of Aragon. Angered, Henry enacted laws that formed the Church of England, declaring himself as its head. Prior to this, the Church in England was merely a regional branch of the Catholic Church, with the pope as its leader.

Although Henry VIII intended for the Church of England to retain its Catholic identity, his successor, Edward VI, introduced numerous Protestant reforms during his brief reign. The situation grew more complex when Edward's half-sister, Mary, a staunch Catholic, ascended to the throne in 1553 and persecuted Protestants during her short rule. When Elizabeth I took the throne in 1558, she reinstated Protestantism in England, passing several acts favoring Protestants. However, Protestants felt she was too lenient on Catholics, while Catholics, supported by the pope, considered Elizabeth a heretic. Throughout her lengthy reign, Elizabeth maintained a delicate balance, refusing to fully endorse either side, which only heightened religious tensions. The Puritans, the most fervent Protestants, aimed to enforce their vision of a pure way of life. Their movement in the early seventeenth century ultimately triggered a series of English Civil Wars from 1642 to 1651, leading to the establishment of a short-lived Commonwealth (1649-1660), which ended when the monarchy was restored in 1660.

Law Enforcement and Prisons

Amid the religious conflicts, London had numerous legal systems addressing both religious and civil matters. The play highlights two examples of London's legal framework at the time. One example is the promoters, government spies tasked with seizing meat purchased illegally during Lent, enforcing religious laws. Another significant instance is Sir Walter's imprisonment at the play's conclusion. When Mrs. Allwit inquires about Sir Walter's whereabouts, Mr. Yellowhammer responds: "Who, the knight? / He lies i'th' knight's ward now." The knight's ward was a dedicated section in London prisons for knights, keeping them separate from other social classes. Additionally, Yellowhammer's comment, "His creditors are so greedy," suggests that Sir Walter's arrest was due to his financial ruin after spending his wealth on the Allwits. Consequently, he would have been placed in a debtors' prison, the most notorious of which was Newgate.

Elizabethan Drama

The term Elizabethan period, named after England's Queen Elizabeth I, lacks a strict definition. Some restrict "Elizabethan drama" to works written between 1558 and 1603, the years of Elizabeth's reign, while others extend the term to include plays up until 1642, when theaters were closed. For example, many scholars classify Thomas Middleton as an Elizabethan playwright, even though most of his works were created during the Jacobean era. Despite this, A Chaste Maid in Cheapside is often categorized as Elizabethan due to its use of similar conventions. Elizabethan dramas were staged in ways that differed significantly from classical and medieval theater. Unlike medieval plays, Elizabethan drama relied on minimal props and sets, requiring actors, dialogue, and movement to convey the story. The audience was expected to interpret these cues. Therefore, reading a complex Elizabethan drama like A Chaste Maid in Cheapside can be challenging without footnotes, as the reader must often decipher the plot from the dialogue alone.

Double Entendre

Elizabethan plays frequently featured double entendres or double meanings. Writers such as William Shakespeare, the most renowned Elizabethan dramatist, skillfully wove these double meanings into their dialogue. Thomas Middleton was equally adept at this technique. In A Chaste Maid in Cheapside and many other plays, Middleton's double entendres often have sexual implications. These double meanings are evident in the play's opening scene, where Maudlin Yellowhammer scolds Moll for her lack of enthusiasm in dancing lessons. Maudlin reminisces about her own lessons, saying, "I was kept at it; I took delight to learn, and he to teach me, pretty brown gentleman, he took pleasure in my company." This suggests that Maudlin had an affair with her dance instructor. This passage is relatively mild compared to others in the play. For instance, at the play's end, Touchwood Senior warns Sir Kix, who has promised to support any children Touchwood Senior fathers. Touchwood Senior replies, "Take heed how you dare a man, while you live sir, / That has good skill at his weapon." Here, "weapon" is a euphemism for his penis, highlighting his fertility.

Aside

In addition to double entendres, which are spoken aloud during conversations with other characters, Middleton also employs asides—remarks directed at the audience that other characters cannot hear. For instance, when Sir Walter instructs his prostitute to pose as a virgin, Sir Walter's valet, Davy, makes a comment to the audience. Davy says, "[Aside] Pure Welsh virgin, she lost her maidenhead in Brecknockshire." Davy is aware that the woman is a prostitute, so he humorously suggests that she is technically a Welsh virgin since she lost her virginity in Wales. Besides these jokes, Middleton uses asides in the play to inform the audience about the various deceptions the characters are engaging in. For example, in another aside, Touchwood Senior holds up a fake fertility drink and tells the audience: "Here's a little vial of almond-milk / That stood me in some three pence." Although the almond milk only cost a few pence, he is tricking Sir Kix into paying him four hundred pounds for it. These kinds of deceptions occur throughout the play and are often accompanied by asides.

Early 1610s: In London, citizens often engage in morally ambiguous behaviors, but they must keep acts like adultery hidden to avoid losing social or political standing.

Today: London is renowned for its tabloid newspapers, which frequently expose and publish scandalous rumors and facts, particularly about the English royal family.

Early 1610s: Protestants in the Church of England adhere to the doctrines outlined in The Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty-Nine Articles.

Today: The Church of England continues to use The Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty-Nine Articles, but it also incorporates other sources, including the Bible, to shape its doctrines.

Early 1610s: The English populace experiences civil and religious turmoil as various factions compete for power. England stands as one of the era's major imperial powers.

Today: The English live in a climate of war anticipation due to their alliance with the United States, which leads the campaign against Saddam Hussein and Iraq. President George W. Bush asserts that Iraq possesses weapons of mass destruction. The United States is widely recognized as the world's leading superpower.

Sources

Barber, Charles, “Critical Introduction,” in A Chaste Maid in Cheapside, University of California Press, 1969, pp. 3–4, 6-7.

Covatta, Anthony, Thomas Middleton's City Comedies, Bucknell University Press, 1973, pp. 34, 151-52, 158-59.

Farr, Dorothy M., Thomas Middleton and the Drama of Realism: A Study of Some of the Representative Plays, Barnes & Noble, 1973, p. 35.

Heller, Herbert Jack, Penitent Brothellers: Grace, Sexuality, and Genre in Thomas Middleton's City Comedies, University of Delaware Press, 2000, pp. 78, 80.

Howard-Hill, T. H., “Thomas Middleton,” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 58, Jacobean and Caroline Dramatists, edited by Fredson Bowers, Gale Research, 1987, pp. 196-222.

Middleton, Thomas, A Chaste Maid in Cheapside, edited by Alan Brissenden, Ernest Benn, 1968.

Mulryne, F. R., “Thomas Middleton,” in British Writers, Vol. 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1979, pp. 1-23.

Sampson, Martin, "Introduction," in Masterpieces of the English Drama: Thomas Middleton, American Book Company, 1915, pp. 3, 9.

Swinburne, Algernon Charles, “Thomas Middleton,” in Thomas Middleton, edited by Havelock Ellis, The Mermaid Series: The Best Plays of the Old Dramatists, Scholarly Press, 1969, pp. vii-xiii, originally published in 1887-1890.

For Further Reading

Friedenreich, Kenneth, ed., Accompanying the Players: Essays Celebrating Thomas Middleton, 1580-1980, AMS Press, 1983. This collection presents essays spanning three centuries, offering a comprehensive view of Middleton's critical reception over time.

Porter, Roy, London: A Social History, Harvard University Press, 1995. Porter's single-volume history explores London's development from ancient times to the modern era.

Pritchard, R. E., ed., Shakespeare's England: Life in Elizabethan & Jacobean Times, Sutton Publishing, 1999. Pritchard compiles writings from Shakespeare's contemporaries, including excerpts from books, plays, poems, letters, diaries, and pamphlets. These selections provide insights into life in England during that period. The book features a piece by Thomas Dekker, a frequent collaborator with Middleton, discussing Cheapside.

Steen, Sara Jayne, Ambrosia in an Earthen Vessel: Three Centuries of Audience and Reader Response to the Works of Thomas Middleton, AMS Press, 1993. Steen analyzes how different audiences and readers have interpreted Middleton's plays over the years.