to cure Tayo. Yet the man’s knowledge of both humans and the universe allows the healing process to begin. From this place, Tayo begins his journey that will lead to wholeness, a journey that has Tayo following Josiah’s spotted cattle into the mountains and eventually back to the Laguna pueblo. Along the way, he encounters white men, a beautiful and mysterious woman, and his old friends Emo, Pinkie, Harley, and LeRoy. All lead him and the world to reconciliation.

With the publication of House Made of Dawn in 1968, N. Scott Momaday initiated what has been called the Native American Renaissance. Many American Indian writers have said that his work not only validated their lives but also seemed to give them permission to write their own stories. Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony had a similar effect on many American Indian women writers. Yet Silko has objected to her writing being categorized by its ethnicity: “I think what writers, storytellers, and poets have to say necessarily goes beyond such trivial boundaries as origin. There’s also the danger of demeaning literature when you label certain books by saying this is black, this is Native American, and then, this is just writing.” Nevertheless, she has inspired others to follow the path that she has forged for them. Louise Erdrich is the most prominent among them, but the list also includes such writers as Paula Gunn Allen, Diane Glancy, Rayna Green, Joy Harjo, and Anna Walters.

While Ceremony offers a male protagonist and ostensibly concerns a man’s experience, Silko actually demonstrates the centrality of the feminine in the universe and in human existence. From Thought Woman’s mind came all things—women, men, this world, the four other worlds, and all creatures. Only in the unity of the feminine and the masculine can wholeness be achieved.

*Gallup

*Gallup. Northwestern New Mexico city on the Puerco River that is the seat of McKinley County. With Navajo communities to the north and west, Zuni to the south, and various Pueblo tribes to the east, Gallup is an important regional center for Indian arts and crafts, as well as an area headquarters for the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The protagonist, Tayo, goes to Gallup to ask a medicine man named Betonie for a special ceremony. Betonie cures with elements from contemporary culture, such as old magazines and telephone books, as well as with native ceremonies. He explains Tayo’s sickness as due to witchery.

*Laguna

*Laguna. Tayo’s home, the center of Laguna Pueblo culture, located about fifty miles west of Albuquerque, to which he returns after the war. Historically, Laguna Pueblo became one of the most cosmopolitan pueblos because of its position on a major east-west route that later included a train line; the pueblo is also the birthplace of author Leslie Silko.

*Philippines

*Philippines. World War II combat zone in which Tayo served before returning to New Mexico. Recalling that he was unable to fire upon Japanese soldiers because they seemed to resemble his uncle, Tayo begins the novel thinking himself insane and begins his quest to find a ceremony that will cure him of his madness.

*Mount Taylor

*Mount Taylor. Snow-capped New Mexico mountain northwest of Laguna Pueblo that is usually visible from the town. Known to the Laguna people as “Tsepina” (woman who walks in the clouds), the mountain is considered a holy place. Tayo eventually actualizes much of his personal ceremony in the wilderness area by the mountain.

*Paguate

*Paguate. Small village about six miles north of Laguna Pueblo that is believed, in Laguna cosmology, to be the Place of Emergence—the place where human beings emerged into the present world from the worlds below. Flooded underground uranium mines near Paguate represent an evil re-rendering of the natural landscape that Tayo struggles to overcome throughout the novel.

Pueblo Indians

The Anasazi tradition's descendants reside in what is now the Southwestern United States, stretching from Taos, New Mexico, to the Hopi mesas in Arizona. Known as Pueblo, which translates to "village Indians" in Spanish, they live in tightly-knit villages of adobe and stone buildings. These structures are accessed from the rooftop. Often towering up to five stories, the buildings encircle a plaza featuring a central kiva—a ceremonial chamber dug into the earth.

Among these people, the western Keres Tribe occupies Acoma and Laguna. Acoma, situated on a 400-foot mesa, has been continuously inhabited since at least 1075 AD, while Laguna was founded more recently. The Pueblo economy was based on an advanced system of dry farming and seed cultivation. The society, which followed matrilineal traditions, divided roles: men engaged in farming and ceremonial dances, while women crafted intricate basketry, beautiful pottery, and constructed the houses. Governance was achieved through consensus, warfare was avoided, and trade occurred with northern Plains tribes and southern empires.

During the 1970s, the Laguna-Acoma communities experienced two tragic events. In 1973, a suicide pact among teenagers resulted in numerous funerals for young boys and girls. Additionally, a man murdered and dismembered two friends, compelling another friend to borrow a car to disperse the remains. The murderer later claimed he found the ax irresistible.

Colonialism

Spanish rule began with Don Francisco Vasquez de Coronado in 1540. Shortly after, the tribes and their territories were acknowledged as subjects of the King of Spain. This acknowledgment remains significant today, as it takes precedence over the claims of Mexico and later the United States, according to international law. This charter was a topic of discussion when Tribal officials accused New Mexico of land theft. The Spanish conquest brought Christianity, missionaries, and death to the Pueblos. To endure, they accepted baptism and Christianity as an extension of their own beliefs.

In the early 1800s, Mexican authorities arrived, insisting that the people speak Spanish, live in rectangular houses, adopt a representative government, enroll their children in Mexican schools, and, more drastically, accept individual land ownership by the male head of the household. On a more positive note, Catholicism was not as strictly enforced, allowing indigenous religion to regain some of its popularity.

The United States took control in 1848 following the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War. English replaced Spanish, and Protestantism was offered as a religious option. The Americans also insisted that the people adopt farming methods similar to those of Americans, who farmed like Europeans. However, this agricultural style relied on rainfall patterns typical of Europe or the Eastern seaboard. The Pueblo region, receiving only 13 inches of rain annually—a suitable amount for a desert—soon faced economic hardship. Since then, the Pueblo cities have been designated reservations, surrounded by white society.

World War II

By the onset of World War II, all Native American tribes had been confined to reservations for at least four decades. This time had allowed boarding schools and missionaries to diminish many spirits and instill a sense of patriotism for the United States in some individuals. When the war erupted, numerous young Native American men viewed enlistment as a gateway to integrating into mainstream white society. The United States recognized a specific need for Native Americans, who became invaluable as cost-effective and readily available code talkers. Across both the Pacific and European Theaters, the airwaves carried Native American languages such as Lakota, Comanche, Navajo, Kiowa, among others. Interestingly, it is challenging to determine the exact number of Native Americans who served in World War II because only the code talkers were identified by race.

Beyond their linguistic skills, Native Americans had access to other resources. Beneath the desolate reservations in South Dakota, Oklahoma, and the Pueblo Crescent, there were vast reserves of plutonium, uranium, gold, oil, and other precious materials. On the Laguna reservation, they extracted materials crucial for the research occurring at Los Alamos, just 70 miles away. The Trinity test site, where the atomic bomb was tested, was also near the Pueblo reservation.

The Indigenous Revival

In 1969, Native Americans were gaining momentum, highlighted by N. Scott Momaday's Pulitzer Prize and the occupation of Alcatraz Island, showing no intention of slowing down. In 1970, the Cherokee Nation established a new constitution, taking initial steps to challenge the American concept of race. Their constitution permitted tribal membership based on ancestry. That same year, they reclaimed lands that had been unlawfully taken from them after their forced relocation to Oklahoma. Hundreds of Native Americans, including activists from the Cherokee Nation, participated in a walk retracing the Trail of Tears. In 1975, the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot tribes filed a claim for nearly the entire state of Maine.

The most infamous, feared, and militant group emerged from Minneapolis in the 1960s. The American Indian Movement (AIM) led a caravan to Washington, D.C., in 1972. When the Nixon administration refused to meet with them, they seized control of the Bureau of Indian Affairs building. Faced with the threat of force, they made off with tons of records. These records were handed over to their lawyers and used in lawsuits against the FBI.

The tension culminated in a standoff at Wounded Knee, where the U.S. military besieged AIM activists for 71 days. AIM emerged victorious. The presence of the media limited the fatalities to one. AIM also succeeded in bringing attention to its primary concern—the Laramie Treaty of 1858. Unfortunately, legal entanglements hindered Native American activists by the late 1970s. By that time, global awareness of the civil rights abuses against Native Americans had increased significantly. This heightened awareness was partly due to a march at the UN Conference on Indigenous Peoples in Geneva in 1977. Influential leaders from Canada, the Iroquois nation, Mexico, South America, and the Hopi nation joined AIM, entering the conference accompanied by drum and song. There, they delivered speeches and engaged with world leaders. The American press corps, however, chose to boycott the event.

Style

An anecdote tells of an Indian who, when commended for his poetry, replied, "In my tribe we have no poets. Everyone talks in poetry." Among cultures with oral traditions and a pictographic form of writing known as codices (of which only a few survive), the line between prose and poetry is blurred. Silko leveraged this cultural aspect and her English education to create a unique written Pueblo style. By creatively using the layout of the page, she evokes a pictograph in her introductory quatrains. This fusion of prose and poetry throughout her novel allows her to intertwine new occurrences with ancient tales.

Silko's distinctive style also serves to preserve and disseminate the old stories. The connection she establishes between herself and Thought-Woman, as well as between Tayo and other story figures, enables her to narrate multiple stories within a single novel. Consequently, many readers unfamiliar with the Laguna Reservation find themselves feeling a deep connection to the characters.

Stereotype

The novel employs stereotypes, such as the archetype of the drunken Indian, to craft a compelling and potentially revolutionary narrative. This stereotype is used to demonstrate how negative perceptions of Native Americans have become entrenched in American society. Additionally, by introducing the humorous veterans, Silko warns that Native Americans are not defeated but are experiencing a resurgence. This is all conveyed within the Pueblo style, as clowns play a significant role in Pueblo ceremonies.

A key aspect of the Pueblo storytelling technique is the belief that the story resides within the listeners. This has a dual effect; part of the novel's success lies in the expectation of white society that Native Americans incorporate myth and ceremony into their worldviews. Thus, while Silko offers solutions for veterans, she also communicates with mainstream white audiences by sharing a Native American narrative. Her critiques of white America are delivered through a Native American lens—via a story about witches. Finally, in a seemingly gentle manner, Silko forewarns Americans that Native Americans will eventually achieve justice—all in due time.

Silko once explained the Pueblo linguistic theory to an audience, as detailed in Yellow Woman and a Beauty of the Spirit. This theory illuminates the narrative style of her novel:

If you're used to stories that take you straight from point A to point B to point C, this presentation might be challenging to follow. Pueblo expression is akin to a spider's web, with numerous threads extending from the center and intersecting each other. Like a web, the structure is revealed as it develops, and you must listen and trust, as the Pueblo people do, that meaning will emerge.

Critics have praised the non-linear narrative of Ceremony. Silko's intention with this storytelling approach is to mirror, once more, the zigzag pattern of the Corn dance and to honor Thought-Woman. Essentially, the entire novel serves as a ceremony that readers engage with each time they read it. It aims to blur the lines between real time and "story time," enabling readers to better empathize with the viewpoint of a traditional Pueblo, like Grandma: "It seems like I already heard these stories before ... only thing is, the names sound different."

The narrative is presented in third person, interwoven with traditional storytelling. The tales of Thought-Woman, the Gambler, and the witches offer context for Tayo's journey within the broader Pueblo narrative. The Pueblos perceive themselves as their language, as a story.

I will tell you something about stories .. . They aren't just entertainment. Don't be fooled. They are all we have . . . all we have to fight off illness and death.

Therefore, there are no clear divisions between the present ceremony Tayo enacts and the larger ceremony performed by the people to maintain harmony with their beliefs: "You don't have anything/if you don't have the stories."

In addition to her narrative style, Silko is commended for her keen observation of human behavior. She remains true to life, avoiding idealization of her characters or setting. Her story unfolds on the struggling Laguna Reservation, where orchards have been destroyed by uranium runoff, drought is devastating crops, Herefords are dying, and young men are turning to alcohol. She offers an unvarnished portrayal of Gallup and does not romanticize her characters.

Silko depicts a realistic view of post-World War II reservation life. However, she does not portray the people as pitiable—Robert, Ku'oosh, Auntie, and Josiah are all dignified individuals. Nor does she elevate them to extraordinary heroes. Her characters strive to find the best path to survive in a world they see as dominated by harmful forces. Ultimately, through their challenges, these individuals gain wisdom they wish to share with the white world—if only it would stop to listen.

An apocryphal tale suggests that when a Native American was commended for his poetry, he remarked, "In my tribe we have no poets. Everyone talks in poetry." Among those with an oral tradition and a pictographic script known as a codex (of which only a few remain), the line between prose and poetry is blurred. Silko capitalized on this to craft a stylized written form for the Pueblos, simulating a pictograph in her initial quatrains. Her seamless integration of prose and poetry throughout the novel allows her to interweave contemporary events with age-old stories.

Silko's approach also enables her to preserve ancient tales by disseminating them. By drawing parallels between herself and Thought-Woman, as well as Tayo and various other characters, she manages to narrate multiple stories within a single novel. Consequently, many readers who are unfamiliar with the Laguna Reservation find the novel's characters to be like old acquaintances.

The novel incorporates stereotypes, such as the image of the drunken Indian. However, it utilizes these stereotypes about Native Americans to convey a compelling and potentially subversive narrative. The portrayal of the drunken Indian serves to highlight how negative perceptions of Native Americans have become entrenched in American culture. Additionally, by featuring the comedic war veterans, she cautions America that Native Americans are not only undeterred but are also asserting their voices in society. This is done with reverence for Pueblo tradition, as clowns hold a significant role in Pueblo ceremonies.

A characteristic of the Pueblo storytelling technique is the belief that the story resides within the listeners. This works in both directions; part of the novel's success is due to white society's expectation that Native Americans will incorporate myth and ritual in their worldview. Moreover, her critiques of white America are expressed in Native American terms, including references to witches. Ultimately, in a nuanced manner, Silko conveys to Americans in Ceremony that Native Americans will achieve justice—all in due time.

Silko narrates the compelling tale of a young Native American veteran who seeks to mend his emotional wounds by reconnecting with the traditions of his ancestors.

1. Silko touches upon the environmental challenges faced by the Laguna Reservation after World War II. How do these challenges impact the culture of the people? What influence do they have on Tayo's ceremony? How does Silko highlight these issues without directly documenting them, and how are they resolved, if at all?

2. Write an essay exploring the Pueblo theory of witchery. What kinds of behavior in both the story and reality could be labeled as witchery? How does this theory help distribute responsibility while proposing solutions to issues like greed, pollution, and hunger?

3. Silko implies that the overlooked Pueblo ceremonial traditions are not just beneficial but vital for future survival. Consider other religious traditions that are either obsolete or have been distorted. What potential value could they offer if revitalized?

4. Native American prophecies consistently foretold the arrival of the white man. Those same prophecies also predict the eventual disappearance of all things European. What do you think this signifies? Is it coming to fruition?

5. Many cultures have distinct recognition patterns and "rites of passage." For instance, the Plains Indians have a Vision Quest where a young individual is "put out" on a hilltop or placed in a shallow grave with four days' worth of water. This experience allows the adolescent to have a vision or receive a message about their future role in the community. Conversely, Jews celebrate their adolescents with a Bar Mitzvah. Modern secular culture lacks similar rituals. In Ceremony, young men perceived enlisting in the army as a rite of passage into white society. Research the cultural significance of "rites of passage." Are they necessary? If so, what kind of ceremony could be envisioned to celebrate reaching maturity in America?

6. While the rest of the nation has seen a twenty-two percent decrease in violent crime, Native American reservations are facing a crime surge, with an eighty-seven percent increase. The 1980s baby boom on reservations has led to a large population of young people, who are beginning to mimic urban gangs in terms of culture, violence, and drug use. The U.S. Congress and President Bill Clinton proposed spending additional millions on new prisons and law enforcement on Native American lands. Reflecting on Ceremony, propose an alternative solution to the emerging gang problem. Additionally, research alternative programs for Native American offenders: why are they underfunded and overlooked?

7. Collect several short accounts (cultural, historical, and archaeological) about the Pueblo Indians. Compare how the Native Americans of the Southwest are portrayed in these narratives. These descriptions often suggest when to visit reservations to watch their dances. With your understanding of Gallup, reflect on the ethics surrounding this type of tourism. Is it ethical to promote the idea of observing Native Americans for entertainment? What does this reveal about our culture in the 1990s?

8. The Mayans were among the three civilizations that invented the mathematical concept of zero. The Pueblo people developed multiple varieties of corn. What other knowledge and resources did Native Americans have that were either appropriated or overlooked? (Hint: investigate their calendars, materials used for making tires, and medical practices.)

During the 1950s and 1960s, Native Americans were encouraged to move from their reservations to large cities after years of conflict with the U.S. Government. While many made the transition, only a small number found success in urban environments. To support one another and foster hope, they established political organizations like Red Power and the American Indian Movement (AIM). Joining these groups enabled displaced Native Americans to regain cultural pride and provided a support network as they fought for their constitutional rights in courts and communities nationwide. Simultaneously, many Native Americans reconnected with their traditions, with activists motivating young people to learn as much as possible about their heritage. One Laguna woman, who was part of this cultural revival, emerged as a prominent author.

Her name is Leslie Marmon Silko, and she first gained recognition with her poetry collection, Laguna Woman, published in 1974. In 1977, Silko released Ceremony, a novel that highlights the significance of reviving ancient stories and integrating them with contemporary life to strengthen cultural identity. The story follows Tayo, a young man from the Laguna Reservation, who returns from World War II's Pacific Theater suffering from a battle fatigue that traditional Western medicine cannot heal. Through his journey to recovery, we learn that healing oneself, the land, and the community requires rediscovering forgotten traditional ceremonies and reconnecting with the earth. Silko is celebrated for her non-linear storytelling and her skillful blend of poetry and prose, earning her acclaim as a master novelist.

The Pueblo people, featured in the novel and known as the descendants of the Anasazi tradition, reside in the southwestern United States, primarily in northern New Mexico. (The term "pueblo" means "village Indians" in Spanish.) Many live in tightly-knit villages with adobe and stone structures, accessed by ladders from the top level. These multi-story buildings, sometimes reaching five stories, encircle a plaza with a central kiva—a ceremonial space dug into the ground.

The Pueblo economy revolved around a sophisticated system of dry farming and seed cultivation. Their matrilineal society had distinct labor roles: men were responsible for farming and performing ceremonial dances, while women crafted intricate baskets and beautiful pottery and constructed homes. Governance was achieved through consensus, warfare was generally avoided, and trade was conducted with the Plains tribes to the north and the southern empires. Spanish rule began in the region with Don Francisco Vasquez de Coronado in 1540. With the Spanish conquest, Christianity was introduced, and many Pueblos adopted it as an extension of their own religious practices to ensure their survival.

In 1848, following the conclusion of the Mexican-American War, the area came under United States control. Eventually, the Pueblo cities were designated as reservations. By the onset of World War II, all Native American groups had been confined to reservations for over four decades. This duration was sufficient to instill a sense of patriotism for the United States among some individuals. When the war erupted, many young Native American men viewed enlisting as a chance to integrate into mainstream white society. The U.S. military also recognized the importance of Native Americans, who became crucial as code talkers, sending encrypted messages. From the Pacific to the European theaters, Native American languages like Lakota, Comanche, Navajo, and Kiowa were used for communication. Interestingly, it's challenging to determine how many Native Americans served in World War II because only the code talkers were "racially" identified.

Native Americans had access to numerous resources. Large reserves of plutonium, uranium, gold, oil, and other precious materials lie beneath the desolate reservations in South Dakota, Oklahoma, and the Pueblo Crescent. On the Laguna reservation, they extracted materials essential for research at Los Alamos, located just 70 miles away. The Trinity test site, where the atomic bomb was first tested, was also near the Pueblo reservation.

By the mid-1960s, starting with N. Scott Momaday's Pulitzer Prize win, Native American people and their issues began receiving national recognition. In 1970, the Cherokee Nation established a new constitution, taking initial steps to challenge the American concept of race. Their constitution permitted tribal membership based on ancestry. That same year, they reclaimed lands that were illegally taken from them after their relocation to Oklahoma. Cherokee activists, joined by hundreds of other Native Americans, retraced the Trail of Tears. In 1975, the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot tribes filed a claim for nearly the entire state of Maine.

The most infamous, feared, and militant Native American group emerged from Minneapolis in the 1960s. AIM led a caravan to Washington, D.C., in 1972, and when the Nixon administration declined to meet with them, they occupied the Bureau of Indian Affairs building. Faced with the threat of force, they took numerous records. These documents were handed over to their lawyers and used in lawsuits against the FBI.

The escalating tension culminated in a standoff at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. There, the U.S. military encircled AIM activists for 71 days until international pressure compelled an end to the conflict. AIM succeeded in spotlighting its primary issue—the Laramie Treaty of 1858. By that time, the global community had become aware of the civil rights abuses faced by Native Americans. This awareness was further amplified by a march at the United Nations Conference on Indigenous Peoples in Geneva in 1977. AIM leaders, along with notable figures from the Iroquois and Hopi nations, Canada, and South America, participated in the event, entering with drums and songs. They delivered speeches and engaged with global leaders. However, the American press corps chose to boycott the gathering.

The narrative of Ceremony unfolds in the 1970s, a period marked by two tragic events affecting the Laguna-Acoma communities. The first was a suicide pact among teenagers in 1973 that resulted in multiple deaths. The second tragedy involved a man who murdered and dismembered two friends, coercing another friend into borrowing a car to dispose of the body parts. The murderer later described the ax as "irresistible."

After a decade of effort, Silko released her second novel, Almanac of the Dead. This book takes on a more explicitly political tone, addressing the panic over illegal immigration, drug trafficking, the CIA, and other prominent topics of the 1980s. Similar to Ceremony, it intertwines legends with contemporary times, as an ancient manuscript is reconstructed after being rescued from the book-burning Spanish.

In her book of essays, Yellow Woman and a Beauty of the Spirit (1996), Silko clarifies some inaccuracies about her own life and provides insights into her writing. This collection reveals her interest in photography, ancient codices, and some historical events that shaped her novels.

N. Scott Momaday's novel, House Made of Dawn, released in 1968, earned the Pulitzer Prize in 1969. This book emerged during the beginning of a Native American cultural revival and amidst a strong push for political rights. The narrative follows a man who returns to his Kiowa Pueblo community after serving in World War II.

There are various records of Native American history available, such as William Brandon's book Indians, which was published in 1961. This book offers a comprehensive overview of Native American history and is praised for its thoroughness and impartiality. Other significant works that provide valuable insights into Native American history include Ward Churchill's A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas, 1942 to the Present, American Indian Activism: Alcatraz to the Longest Walk by Troy Johnson, Joane Nagel, and Duane Champagne, as well as American Indian Sovereignty and the U.S. Supreme Court: The Masking of Justice by David E. Wilkins.

Sources

Peter G. Beidler, review in Native American Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 4, Winter, 1977-1978, pp. 357-58.

Hayden Carruth, "Harmonies in Time and Space," in Harper's Magazine, Vol. 254, No. 1525, June 1977, pp. 80-82.

Elame Jahner, "All the World's a Story" in Prairie Schooner, Vol. 51, No. 4, Winter 1977-1978, pp. 415-16.

Charles R. Larson, "The Jungles of the Mind," in Washington Post Book World, April 24, 1977, p. E4.

Frank MacShane, "American Indians, Peruvian Jews: 'Ceremony'," in The New York Times Book Review, June 12, 1977, pp. 15, 33.

Ruth Mathewson, "Ghost Stories," in The New Leader, Vol. LX, No. 12, June 6, 1977, pp. 14-15.

James Ruppert, "The Reader's Lessons in 'Ceremony'," in Arizona Quarterly, Vol. 44, No. 1, Spring 1988, pp. 78-85.

Leslie Marmon Silko, "Language and Literature from a Pueblo Indian Perspective" in Yellow Woman and a Beauty of the Spirit, Simon & Schuster, 1996, pp. 48-59.

For Further Study

Thomas Berger, Little Big Man, Fawcett, 1964.
Written by a man noted for his insightful satire on America, this novel narrates the life of Jack Crab—the sole survivor of Custer's Last Stand. Both the book and the film adaptation (starring Dustin Hoffman, 1970) contributed to reshaping the portrayal of Native Americans. In this version, Custer is depicted not as the Hollywood hero but as the historically accurate eccentric who perished along with his men in a battle against the Lakota led by Crazy Horse.

Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, an Indian History of the American West, Holt, 1970.
History books were revisited in response to the growing minority awareness brought on by the Civil Rights movement and as a spark for political activism. This book presents a narrative starkly different from the patriotic tales of 'how the West was won.' For instance, the 1890 event at Wounded Knee is portrayed as the massacre of Big Foot's group of 300 elderly men, women, and children.

Arthur S. Flemming, Indian Tribes: A Continuing Quest for Survival, a Report by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1981.
Eight years following the Wounded Knee siege, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights released a long-awaited report. It concluded that most violations of Native American rights stem from public ignorance and misinformation (e.g., despite "an entire volume of the U.S. Code being dedicated to Indian Law," it is seldom acknowledged in Law Schools). Moreover, the report determined that greed—not racism—is the primary cause of backlash whenever treaty rights are enforced or upheld in court.

Tom Holm's book, Strong Hearts, Wounded Souls: Native American Veterans of the Vietnam War, published by the University of Texas Press in 1996, highlights the often-overlooked contributions of the approximately 43,000 Native Americans who served in the Vietnam War. Through interviews, Holm delves into the significance of war and the warrior identity, how tribal traditions supported these veterans during combat, and their experiences upon returning home. Unlike many of their white peers, Native-American Vietnam veterans often had different experiences, as many tribes offered ceremonies to help heal the trauma associated with the "white path of peace."

In "Impressions of an Indian Childhood," found in The Norton Anthology of American Literature, Vol. H, 1989, Gertrude Simmons Bonin, also known as Zitkala-Sa (1876–1938), is recognized as a potential pioneer of Native-American novel writing, had circumstances allowed. Her people's needs took precedence, influencing her path. Bonin was a multifaceted individual—a violinist, short story writer, progressive reformer, labor rights advocate, and secretary of the Society of American Indians, the first organization entirely run by Native Americans advocating for their rights. Her autobiographical writings offer an intriguing read.