Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, North America was a land of tremendous change and opportunity, with events such as the Klondike Gold Rush embodying the continent's allure and danger. At the same time, theories like Social Darwinism were influencing societal structures, impacting both individual lives and broader cultural narratives. This period also saw the emergence of a new artistic movement that sought to capture the raw, unvarnished reality of life in this rapidly evolving society.

The Klondike Gold Rush: A Quest for Wealth and Survival

The Klondike Gold Rush was a pivotal chapter in the history of North American exploration, a time when adventure met adversity in the icy expanses of Alaska and Canada. Gold, the eternal lure, drew settlers to the continent, echoing the earlier Spanish quests in Central and South America. In the 1840s, with the discovery of gold in California, a cascade of prospecting expeditions followed, each chasing the elusive promise of wealth. However, by the 1880s, the dream of striking it rich had become increasingly remote as mining turned into a corporate enterprise, overshadowing individual efforts.

In 1896, the discovery of gold in the Klondike region of Canada's Yukon Territory sparked fresh hopes. This newfound treasure trove attracted waves of hopefuls to the harsh, yet barely explored terrains of Alaska. Like characters in Jack London's The Call of the Wild, many were unprepared for the severe conditions they encountered. With the region yielding $22 million in gold by 1897, the Klondike Gold Rush beckoned adventurers such as Jack London himself, who sought both fortune and a reprieve from the complexities of modern life.

Social Darwinism: The Struggle for Existence

As prospectors battled nature and each other for gold, a different struggle unfolded in the socio-political sphere. Social Darwinism, an idea extrapolated from Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, posited that society too was a battleground where only the "fittest" thrived. The notion found proponents in philosophers and social scientists like Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner, who argued this natural selection process was both inevitable and beneficial, as it supposedly weeded out the 'unfit.'

This philosophy resonated in an America dominated by capitalism, justifying the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few, such as Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie, in his book The Gospel of Wealth, argued that while the accumulation of wealth was a product of these natural laws, the rich bore a responsibility to use their resources for societal benefit, albeit not through direct charity but through institutions like libraries and universities.

However, not all subscribed to the harsh tenets of Social Darwinism. Critics, including Protestants and social Progressives, viewed the philosophy as morally bankrupt. Figures like philosopher Lester Frank Ward challenged the notion of "survival of the fittest," advocating instead for social cooperation and the protection of the vulnerable as a pathway to a more equitable society.

The Arts: Reflecting a Changing World

The dawn of the 20th century saw artists and writers deeply influenced by these prevailing social theories and the realities of growing urban poverty and labor unrest. These artists sought to strip art and literature of their genteel trappings, focusing instead on the gritty life of the streets, factories, and declining rural areas. They acknowledged a kind of societal natural selection but diverged from the optimism of figures like Spencer and Sumner, opting to highlight the individual's plight within a capitalistic society.

Naturalist writers such as Theodore Dreiser, Frank Norris, Stephen Crane, and Jack London painted vivid portraits of characters navigating indifferent, often hostile environments. In Dreiser's Sister Carrie, the protagonist's journey reveals the harsh realities faced by those lured by urban dreams, as she shifts from oppressive factory work to an acting career, reflecting the broader economic forces at play.

Similarly, the Ash Can School artists rejected traditional notions of beauty, capturing the raw essence of urban life through an impressionistic lens. Their work, often featuring muted tones, celebrated the vibrancy and resilience of immigrant communities and the working class, areas previous art movements had overlooked.

Jack London and "The Call of the Wild": A Literary Intersection

Jack London's personal experiences and philosophical leanings are vividly encapsulated in his work The Call of the Wild, as well as in his own life choices, such as his 1897 expedition to the Yukon. Driven by the allure of the gold rush and the desire to conquer the frontier, London, like many of his characters, grappled with survival in a harsh world. His experiences of poverty and labor deeply informed his social Darwinist views, grounded in the writings of Herbert Spencer.

"The Call of the Wild encompasses London's contradictory attractions to strength and love, Nietzsche and Marx, individualism and cooperative action, materialism and romanticism."

The narrative captures the brutal competition for survival but also the potential for extraordinary individuals to rise above adversity, embodying the quintessence of a Nietzschean "superman." London's portrayal of violence and justice, as seen in the ferocity of the dogs and the impactful murder of John Thornton, invites reflection on human and animal savagery, justice, and what civilization truly values.

Ultimately, London's works, and The Call of the Wild in particular, illustrate his belief in environmental determinism, sparking dialogue on the extent to which one's environment shapes character and fate.

"The Call of the Wild," a classic novella by Jack London, artfully intertwines elements of literary naturalism, mythology, and philosophy. Its narrative brilliantly explores the survival instincts of its canine protagonist, Buck, in a harsh and unforgiving environment. London's storytelling captivates readers by delving into complex themes and employing a unique narrative style that balances realism with mythical overtones.

Philosophical Influences

Jack London was deeply influenced by a variety of philosophical and intellectual currents of his time, drawing from the works of Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Immanuel Kant, Benjamin Kidd, and Friedrich Nietzsche, among others. These influences manifest in Buck's journey, as he evolves into a figure shaped by natural selection and Nietzschean heroic morality. The archetypal nature of "The Call of the Wild" places it within the tradition of American symbolists like Poe, Hawthorne, and Melville. Notably, London's connection to Melville is intriguing, as both authors examine the limits of knowledge and utilize potent animal symbols to reflect on the human condition.

Literary Naturalism

The novella epitomizes the characteristics of literary naturalism, a movement that emerged at the turn of the 20th century. This style is characterized by a realistic and direct presentation of stories, emphasizing the influence of the environment on character development. London's control over plot and perspective is notable, providing the story with coherence and depth. His diction is rich and evocative, growing more resonant with mystical tones as the narrative unfolds. The story’s depiction of Buck's transformation is often compared to Frank Norris's "McTeague," as both explore how hidden traits are revealed through environmental interactions.

Allegorical Dimensions

Many readers perceive "The Call of the Wild" as more than just a tale about a dog. Some interpret it as an allegory reflecting human society, where Buck's transformation symbolizes the broader human experience. The surface narrative of Buck's evolution parallels a deeper story about humanity confronting its savagery, facing a hostile world, and negotiating the bonds of love and independence. Critic Earle Labor describes the work as a "beast fable," suggesting it evokes reflections on human situations rather than merely depicting animal plight.

Narrative Technique and Point of View

The novella's unique narrative perspective offers insights into animal consciousness while maintaining Buck's believability as a dog. A human narrator translates Buck's universe for the audience, striking a balance between explaining motivations and preserving Buck's canine nature. For instance, when Buck starts stealing food from his master, London clarifies, "Not that Buck reasoned it out... unconsciously he accommodated himself to the new mode of life." Such narrative techniques contribute significantly to the story's immersive quality.

Setting and Symbolism

The setting of "The Call of the Wild" is bifurcated into the civilized Southland and the untamed Northland. This dichotomy symbolizes the transition from a domesticated life to one of survival in the wild. The climates of these regions reinforce this contrast, with the South depicted as warm and leisurely, while the North is harsh and perilous. As Buck adapts to his new environment, the setting itself transforms from a tangible place to a mythical realm, mirroring Buck's own evolution into the legendary "Ghost Dog."

Naturalism vs. Romanticism

Though "The Call of the Wild" is rooted in naturalism, reflecting themes of biological determinism and environmental influence, it also contains elements of romanticism. Romanticism often highlights mythic and symbolic aspects over strict realism, and as Buck responds to the ancestral "call of the wild," the narrative shifts into a mythic dimension. Critics like Earle Labor and Jeanne Campbell Reesman identify the work as a "mythic romance," tracing Buck's journey through stages of adventure and transformation akin to legendary quests.

London's Stylistic Approach

Jack London's style in "The Call of the Wild" is shaped by his belief in the precedence of substance over form, influenced by Herbert Spencer's "Philosophy of Style" and the plain prose of Rudyard Kipling. Although some of London's lesser works suffer from disjointed narration due to this focus, "The Call of the Wild" succeeds through dynamic storytelling that eschews didacticism. London's narrative progresses from straightforward realism to visionary passages, paralleling Buck's own transformation from the mundane to the mythical.

London illustrates this stylistic evolution through Buck's journey from the genteel Judge Miller's ranch, described in plain language, to the brutal experiences in the Yukon, conveyed with vigorous and active prose. As Buck becomes the mythical "Ghost Dog," the prose shifts to tone poems that capture the mystical essence of his transformation. By skillfully marrying style with substance, London crafts a narrative that resonates with readers on multiple levels.

In the vast wilderness of the Yukon during the tumultuous Klondike gold rush, the transformation of Buck, a domesticated dog, unfolds as he is torn from his sheltered life in California and thrust into the harsh realities of the Arctic north. This era, defined by both human ambition and the indomitable spirit of nature, presents a backdrop that is both challenging and transformative for all involved. Amidst the quest for gold, Buck's journey epitomizes the struggle between the comforts of civilization and the call of the wild instincts within.

The Klondike Gold Rush

The Klondike gold rush of 1897 marked a significant chapter in North American history, drawing thousands of prospectors to the untamed Yukon Territory. The allure of gold drove these adventurers into harsh, icy landscapes, precipitating a demand for robust sled dogs essential for navigating the snow-laden trails. This mass migration not only changed the demographics of the region but also had profound consequences for animals like Buck, who became indispensable in this quest for fortune.

Buck's Californian Beginnings

Before his fateful journey north, Buck lived a life of ease on a sprawling California estate. His existence was one of comfort and security, a stark contrast to the challenges that lay ahead. The abrupt transition from his pampered life to the harsh conditions of the Yukon underscores the broader upheaval of the gold rush era, affecting both humans and animals alike. Buck's story highlights the drastic changes that occurred as individuals and creatures were uprooted in the relentless pursuit of wealth.

Adapting to the Wild

Thrown into the unforgiving environment of the Yukon, Buck is forced to adapt quickly to survive. His journey is one of awakening, as he taps into the primitive instincts buried deep within him. The transformation is not merely physical; it is a profound psychological shift that propels Buck from a domesticated pet to a creature of the wild. His evolving understanding of the sled dog team dynamics and the natural world signifies the broader theme of survival in an unforgiving landscape.

The Call of the Wild

As Buck acclimates to the demands of life in the Yukon, he feels an increasing pull toward his ancestral roots—a symbolic return to nature. This "call" represents a shedding of domestic comforts in favor of the raw beauty and simplicity of wilderness life. It illustrates a deep inner change, a growing desire for freedom and instinctual living. Buck's journey serves as a reminder of the innate power of nature within us all, urging a return to basic survival.

Experiencing the Yukon

The Yukon River basin, with its mountains, glaciers, forests, and rivers, becomes the stage for Buck's transformation. Known well by Jack London, who participated in the Klondike gold rush, this area challenges Buck repeatedly on treks between Dyea and Dawson. The grueling winter journeys across ice-packed lakes and frozen rivers are where Buck's wild instincts come to the forefront. As the cold landscape whispers to him of a primordial freedom, Buck grows more attuned to the vast, silent wilderness.

A Bond at Thornton’s Camp

John Thornton's river camp, where Buck finds respite, signals a turning point in his journey. Rescued by Thornton from the abuse of inept prospectors, Buck begins to heal both physically and emotionally. The bond he forms with Thornton is deep and transformative, pulling him back from the call of the wild even as it grows stronger. Yet, the allure of the wilderness calls to Buck, pushing him to explore further into the forest, testing the limits of his dual life between man and nature.

Journey to the Valley Camp

At Thornton’s valley camp, high in the Mackenzie Mountains, Buck experiences ultimate freedom. While John and his partners labor in their endless search for gold, Buck roams the wild at will, his encounters with wolves strengthening his instincts. The discovery of gold deposits leads to a temporary sense of stability, but the brutal raid by the Yeehats severs Buck's last tie to civilization. Left to grieve, he kills two of the attackers and joins the wolves, becoming a legend as the "Ghost Dog" who leads the pack through the mountains.

1900s: Americans start to acknowledge the importance of conserving and protecting the environment. The U.S. government initiates forest preservation in 1891. In 1892, John Muir establishes the Sierra Club.

1903: President Theodore Roosevelt establishes the National Wildlife Refuge System.

Today: The Sierra Club remains active and is a significant player in the environmental movement. Conflicts between businesses and environmentalists frequently arise over the usage of America's natural resources and the protection of endangered species.

1900s: Wolves are native to and commonly found throughout the northwestern United States, Canada, and Alaska.

Today: Wolves have largely vanished from most parts of the United States. A controversial project to reintroduce wolves to Yellowstone National Park is carried out in the 1990s, despite opposition from local ranchers, and sees some success.

1900s: Alaska, which joined the United States in 1867, was sparsely populated until the gold rushes in Juneau (1880) and the Klondike (1897). These events drew numerous fortune seekers to the region.

Today: Alaska became a state in 1959. For many years, oil was the state's primary economic driver. However, the oil market downturn in the 1980s hurt Alaska's economy. The 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill polluted over 1,285 miles of shoreline, including the Prince William Sound wildlife sanctuary. Alaska still holds the largest area of pristine wilderness in the U.S. and continues to navigate the balance between economic development and environmental conservation.

1900s: Theodore Roosevelt becomes President of the United States in 1901. As a member of the "Rough Riders," a volunteer cavalry regiment, Roosevelt was a war hero in the 1898 Spanish-American War. He was also a passionate sportsman, hunter, and adventurer, embodying a robust masculinity that set a new standard for American manhood.

Today: President William Jefferson Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives in 1998 for lying under oath about an affair with a White House intern. Many Americans view Clinton's actions and subsequent dishonesty as a disgrace to American values and indicative of a decline in the dignity of the presidency.

• The Call of the Wild (1935), film adaptation by United Artists, directed by William Wellman, starring Clark Gable and Loretta Young. It was a Hollywood-style romance and a popular success, known for taking liberties with Jack London's plot.
• The Call of the Wild (1972), film adaptation directed by Ken Annakin, starring Charlton Heston as John Thornton and Michele Mercier. This version is noted for being more faithful to the original story, with impressive scenery filmed in Finland. It is available on video.
• The Call of the Wild (1983), television adaptation starring Rick Schroder as John Thornton. This version is available on video.
• The Call of the Wild (1976), made-for-television adaptation with a script written by James Dickey.
• The Call of the Wild (1923), film adaptation directed by Hal Roach, starring Jack Mulhall.
• The Call of the Wild, audiobook read by Arnold Moss on a cassette made by Miller-Brody.
• Jack London Cassette Library, read by Jack Dahlby, includes readings of The Call of the Wild, Martin Eden, and The Sea-Wolf.

• Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 92, November, 1903, pp. 695-96.
• Jonathan Auerbach, “Congested Mails': Buck and Jack's 'Call',” in Rereading Jack London, edited by Leonard Cassuto and Jeanne Campbell Reesman, Stanford University Press, 1966, pp. 25-45.
• Joseph Campbell, "The Hero and the God," in The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Princeton University Press, 1968, p. 36.
• Mary Kay Dodson, "Naturalism in the Works of Jack London," in Jack London Newsletter, Vol. 4, No. 3, September-December, 1971, pp. 130-39.
• J. Stewart Doubleday, review of The Call of the Wild, in The Reader, Vol. 2, No. 4, September, 1903, pp. 408-09.
• Andrew Flink, "‘Call of the Wild'—Jack London's Catharsis," in Jack London Newsletter, Vol. 11, No. 1, January-April, 1978, pp. 12-19.
• Joan D. Hedrick, "The Call of the Wild," in Solitary Comrade: Jack London and His Work, The University of North Carolina Press, 1982, pp. 94-111.
• Earle Labor and Jeanne Campbell Reesman, Jack London, Twayne, 1994.
• Abraham Rothberg, introduction to The Call of the Wild and White Fang, by Jack London, Bantam Books, 1963, pp. 1-17.
• Charles Watson Jr., "Ghost Dog: 'The Call of the Wild'," in The Novels of Jack London: A Reappraisal, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1983, pp. 33-52.
• Earl J. Wilcox, "Jack London's Naturalism: The Example of The Call of the Wild," in Jack London Newsletter, Vol. 2, No. 3, September-December, 1969, pp. 91-101.
• Raymond Benoit, "Jack London's The Call of the Wild," in American Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. 2, Summer, 1968, pp. 246-48. Benoit contends that The Call of the Wild is part of the tradition of "pastoral protest" literature in America and that it embodies the "American dream of escaping from the entangling complexity of modern living."
• Jacqueline Tavernier-Courbin, The Call of the Wild: A Naturalistic Romance, Twayne, 1994. Offers a detailed analysis of the novel's competing ideologies.
• Jacqueline Tavernier-Courbin, editor, Critical Essays on Jack London, G.K. Hall, 1983. This collection contains important early assessments of London's works as well as contemporary critical essays.
• Charles Child Walcutt, "Jack London: Blond Beasts and Superman," in American Literary Naturalism, A Divided Stream, University of Minnesota Press, 1956, pp. 87-113. In the chapter on London in his classic study of American naturalism, Walcutt discusses the nature of morality in The Call of the Wild.
• Earl J. Wilcox, editor, The Call of the Wild by Jack London: A Casebook with Text, Background Sources, Reviews, Critical Essays, and Bibliography, Nelson Hall, 1980. In addition to the text of the novel, this book contains reviews, helpful essays on the novel, the story "Batard," and nine letters by London pertaining to the novel.
• Hamilton, David Mike. "Jack London." In Research Guide to Biography and Criticism, edited by Walton Beacham. Washington, DC: Beacham Publishing, 1985. Provides an overview of the major biographies and studies of Jack London.
• Labor, Earle. Jack London. New York: Twayne, 1974. This introduction to the life and work of Jack London is probably the best place to begin. It is authoritative and clearly written.
• London, Jack. Jack London: American Rebel. Edited by Philip S. Foner. New York: Citadel Press, 1947. This collection of London's autobiographical and social writings includes such articles as "How I Became a Socialist" and "What Life Means to Me."
• London, Joan. Jack London and His Times: An Unconventional Biography, 1939. Reprint. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1968. This book by London's daughter focuses upon the development of Jack London's socialist perspective.
• Walker, Franklin. Jack London and the Klondike. San Marino: Henry E. Huntington Library, 1966. This scholarly book examines Jack London's experience in the Klondike and its influence upon his writing.