Late Nineteenth–Early Twentieth-Century America

Although Jack London’s "To Build a Fire" was initially published in 1908, the story takes its inspiration from the Klondike Gold Rush, which commenced in 1897. The early 1900s in America mirrored the late 1800s in many ways. The nation had just experienced major territorial expansion across the western plains and along the Pacific coast. In 1898, America further extended its reach by annexing Hawaii and acquiring Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico following the Spanish-American War.

The late 1800s also witnessed a surge of immigrants arriving in the United States, leading to the establishment of Ellis Island in 1891 as a processing center for the new Immigration Bureau. Immigrants became vital to the country’s growing industrial economy, which now included not only textiles but also mining, steel production, and heavy machinery manufacturing. Entire families joined the workforce. Consequently, labor laws were enacted, and labor unions formed in response to hazardous working conditions and the economic depressions of 1893-97.

During this period, the number of public schools and libraries increased significantly. By 1900, most states had enacted compulsory education laws, and more women were earning college degrees. When London published "To Build a Fire" in the early 1900s, the short story genre was enjoying widespread popularity.

The Klondike Gold Rush, which began in 1897 and lasted until 1910, fueled the era's spirit of territorial expansion and industrial growth, along with their economic cycles of boom and bust. The Klondike region also served as a rich source of inspiration for much of London’s most acclaimed work.

The Klondike Gold Rush

In August 1896, George Cormack discovered a rich vein of gold at Rabbit Creek, near the Klondike and Yukon rivers in northwestern Canada. The rush to Canada's Klondike region began a year later when steamships carrying prospectors and their gold arrived in San Francisco. News of their success sparked a gold fever. By then, the most lucrative claims had already been taken, but this didn't deter many, including Jack London, from heading north. This gold rush had a significant impact on northwestern Canada. In Dawson, a city that emerged from the rush, Americans outnumbered Canadians five to one. The influx also affected Alaska, the neighboring American territory, as many prospectors traveled through it on their way to the Klondike. In 1890, Alaska had about 4,000 white settlers. By 1910, due to the Klondike stampede and subsequent gold discoveries in Alaska itself, that number had grown to 36,400.

Jack London spent time in both Alaska and Canada. In "To Build a Fire," he describes the Yukon trail that winds through Alaska and Canada: "[The] main trail—that led south five hundred miles to the Chilcoot Pass, Dyea, and salt water; and that led north seventy miles to Dawson, and still on to the north a thousand miles to Nulato, and finally to St. Michael on Bering Sea. . . ."

Thousands of gold seekers traveled these and other routes, both by land and water, to the Klondike, hoping to find fortune. They disregarded warnings about the severe winters they would face in the Northland, much like the man in "To Build a Fire" ignores the advice of the seasoned old-timer at the Klondike mining camp of Sulphur Creek.

The tale of the man who succumbs to the cold highlights several challenges that young adults might face. Most notably, the man disregards sound advice. London writes, "He remembered the advice of the old-timer on Sulphur Creek, and smiled. The old-timer had been very serious in laying down the law that no man must travel alone in the Klondike at fifty below." The man believes he has successfully ignored the old-timer's counsel, only to find his hands frozen, rendering him unable to grasp a twig to start a fire. It dawns on him that "perhaps the old-timer at Sulphur Creek was right. If he had only had a trail mate he would have been in no danger now." However, his arrogance in thinking he knew better than the seasoned locals ultimately leads to his demise.

Many young people assume they understand how the world works and often neglect the wisdom of their elders. By dismissing experienced adults' advice, some fail to navigate their learning experiences safely. Like the man in the story, they may face physical or mental harm, or even death. When the reality of their situation becomes apparent, they regret not listening to the old-timers' advice. Unfortunately, by then it is often too late. If they survive, they might become the old-timers themselves. Thus, it is prudent to consider the guidance of experienced individuals, as it could spare young people from unnecessary suffering and distress.

The man also errs by isolating himself. London illustrates how insignificant a man is when alone in the vast, unforgiving wilderness. Some young people choose to isolate themselves, while others have isolation imposed upon them. Nathaniel Hawthorne believed that those who isolate themselves are the greatest sinners because they lack empathy for others. They deny their humanity and consider themselves superior. London emphasizes that self-isolation is perilous and can result in death. Often, individuals who are depressed or unhappy isolate themselves, which exacerbates their unhappiness due to the absence of someone to confide in. London suggests that it is wise to have a "trail mate" for life's journey, whether it's a friend, spouse, or family member.

A third issue the protagonist faces in the story concerns his understanding of masculinity. He believes that "any man who was a man could travel alone." However, he confuses recklessness with manliness, a mistake often seen in teenagers at school. Many young boys think that being manly means fighting, swearing, smoking, drinking, and mimicking adult behaviors. But true manhood is much deeper than these superficial actions. Genuine men (and women) take responsibility for their choices and actions. They understand the risks of alienating others and strive to be friendly and kind to everyone. Recognizing that success usually requires effort, they work diligently. The man in the story falls short in most of these aspects, although by the end, he becomes more of a real man. He acknowledges his foolishness and decides that if "he was bound to freeze anyway . . . he might as well take it decently." At the story's conclusion, he faces death with courage. As he dies, he envisions the old-timer at Sulphur Creek and mutters, "You were right, old hoss; you were right." He admits his mistake and dies understanding the truth, no longer deceiving himself. For London, the essence of a real man lies in courage, humility, and truth.

Additionally, the man is unkind to the dog. His mistreatment of the animal stems from his pride in being human and his belief in his superiority over the dog. Consequently, when the man is in dire straits, the dog does nothing to assist him. The dog understands the peril of venturing into extreme cold but does not attempt to warn the man, as it only cares about him to the extent that he provides food and warmth. When the man is freezing, the dog merely sits and watches, offering no help. Perhaps if he had treated the dog better, it would have shared its warmth with him, but the man had distanced himself from his sole companion on the trail. London appears to suggest that cruelty, in any form, can lead to harm or death, while kindness fosters connections with others who might help in the future. Whether directed at animals or people, abuse can have negative repercussions for the abuser. Conversely, kindness and empathy can have positive effects, improving everyone's lives. Thus, as a form of self-preservation, it is better to be kind, as London illustrates in "To Build a Fire."

1890s: In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmits a message using radio waves, which were discovered by Heinrich Rudolph Hertz in 1887. This marks the inception of the "wireless telegraph." News of gold discoveries in the Klondike region of Canada's Yukon Territory, which began in August 1896, reaches the United States in January 1897, sparking another gold rush.

1990s: The extensive network of telecommunication lines, radio and television transmitters, cellular phones, and orbiting satellites enables news to be transmitted from even the most remote locations to urban centers around the world within minutes.

1897: English physicist J.J. Thomson introduces the concept of an atomic nucleus surrounded by one or more electrons. The number of these electrons defines the atom's atomic number.

1905: Swiss theoretical physicist Albert Einstein presents the idea of the equivalence of matter and energy with his famous equation, E=mc², suggesting the potential for new sources of power and heat.

1911: Ernest Rutherford, working at the University of Manchester in England, proposes that an atom consists of a positively charged nucleus with electrons orbiting around it.

1938: German chemist Otto Hahn, along with his assistants Fritz Strassmann and Lise Meitner, achieves the first recorded fission of uranium atoms, resulting in the release of a significant amount of energy and heat.

1952: The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission detonates a nuclear fusion bomb at their testing grounds in the Pacific.

1979: An accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, leads to the plant's shutdown and a loss of public confidence in nuclear power in the United States.

1985: An accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant near Kiev in Ukraine renders a vast area uninhabitable for thousands of years, leading to widespread public skepticism regarding the safety and value of nuclear power.