[In the following essay, Gathercole details the artistry of the illustrations and miniatures found in fourteen manuscript copies dating from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, preserved at the Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris, of Brunetto's The Book of the Treasure.]

“Sieti raccomandato il mio Tesoro,
Nel qual io vivo ancora.”

(Dante, Divina Commedia, Inferno, XV, 119-120)

Brunetto Latini's Livre du Trésor,¹ a vast compendium of knowledge written between 1262 and 1266, was extremely popular during the Middle Ages.² The variety of subjects treated appealed to the readers of the author's time. For its mass of learning, legends, and wisdom in politics, moreover, the book has remained an interesting treatise for many generations.³ In Book I, Brunetto discusses philosophy and the history of the world: cosmography, geography, physics, and natural science; Book II contains a partial translation of the Ethics of Aristotle with commentaries on the virtues and the vices; Book III is dedicated to politics, beginning with a treatise on rhetoric that reveals borrowings from Cicero.⁴ More specifically Brunetto deals with the birth of all things, the medieval elements, planets, signs of the zodiac, mathematics, music, nature of animals, government of cities, and Biblical history. The Florentine writer stated that he chose French rather than Italian for his celebrated prose encyclopedia at that period “porce que la parleure est plus delitable et plus commune a toutes gens.”⁵

A rich collection of manuscripts of the Trésor, dating from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries is found at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. Fourteen copies, for the most part on parchment, reveal a wealth of beautiful miniatures. They are as follows: fr. 191, 566, 567, 570, 571, 573, 726, 1109, 1110, 1113, 9142, 12581, 19090, and n.a. 6591.⁶ The Trésor, written on a varied number of folios showing two columns, is frequently bound together with several other medieval works. The subject matter for paintings on the manuscripts, varies little from copy to copy. Although the miniatures are at times quite small, a large illumination may grace the opening of each section of the book. This picture frequently forms a composite of various incidents mentioned in the text.⁷

The manuscripts are further adorned by carefully decorated capitals and rubrics. The artists may paint rich letters in gold, orange, and blue, stylized with delicate feather-work or acanthus leaves enhancing their interiors. Some initials are historiated and portray original figures: a man, part bird, graces the letter T (f. 41, fr. 570), a knight, half dragon, distinguishes a capital A (f. 153, same ms.). A serpent may coil appropriately to form the letter S. The customary presentation scene, characteristic of so many other codices of the time, can be seen (f. 5, fr. 1113).

Marginal prolongations emanating from the capitals are usually penned in thin blue, red, or blank lines. The fifteenth century scroll work is especially elaborate, often less heavy and crude than at an earlier period, picturing dainty gold, blue, and rose ivy leaves along four sides of the folios. Acanthus foliage, strawberries, blackberries, pears, together with red and blue flowers appear in the margins (fr. 191). Life-like pansies and columbines enhance the borders of fr. 9142, while peculiar shell-effects fill those on fr. 570 (folios 35, and 41). The margins may also disclose peculiar chimeric figures among the abundant foliage. Men who ride strange animals blow flutes and trumpets; monkeys and rabbits scamper between the twirling ivy leaves of the linear decoration (fr. 567). A greyhound may chase a stag along the bottom of the page, a wolf, a rooster (f. 8. fr. 1109). A man armed with bow and arrow shoots towards an ostrich; a knight humorously aims at two lovers embracing (f. 10, fr. 566). Tiny Biblical figures or clownish Triboulets may emerge through the leafage, mythological centaurs and other animal-like forms clamber along the marginal branches. Heads enclosed in small circles can be placed symmetrically along two sides of the miniature. Coats-of-arms may grace the bottoms of folios; birds of rich plumage embellish the edges.

The majority of the paintings on the manuscripts serve to illustrate the text itself. Human beings and Biblical figures constitute the chief subjects of the miniatures, and generally embody vivid scenes of action.⁸ The usual portraits of a scribe seen writing at his desk or the author on his knees presenting his book to a patron, occur repeatedly at the beginning. The illuminators have skilfully captured the mood of the scene described in the story. To represent Book 3 on rhetoric, the artist frequently portrays a discussion scene with an interested group of readers clustered about the author. The miniaturists also depict humans on their knees in prayer or accepting the holy Chalice. The favorite scene of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden finds adequate representation here, in addition to the different stages of creation and ages of man. Manifold illuminations describe graphically the life of Christ: His crucifixion, entombment, and resurrection (f. 37b, fr. 566). He may be shown nailed to the cross, encircled by His apostles, presenting the tables of the law to Moses, or He may sit in majesty at the top of a dazzling orb flanked by two angels (folio 3, fr. 567). Mary may be tenderly holding the child Jesus in her arms, worshipped by three Wise Men who have come bearing gifts. The prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah, armed with white scrolls, stand ready to render judgement. Other holy figures such as Maccabeus, Zacharias, King David and Solomon provide their interpreters with interesting material. Saints on the point of being martyred are dramatically painted: St. John the Evangelist, St. James, St. Peter, St. Paul, St. Thomas, etc. The conventional subject of Lady Fortune holding the Wheel of Fortune that tosses men down in its movement also finds its illustrators. Abstract qualities may be personified and named: four nuns, “justice, temperance, prudence, and force” enhance the initial folio of Part II, fr. 191. Women wearing gold crowns symbolize the Cardinal Virtues on f. 52 of fr. 571. The artists may draw various elements in concentric circles and label them “la lune, la mer, le soleil” (f. 48, fr. 566), a procedure which recalls some Nicolas Oresme manuscripts. The painters illustrate and name in like manner the planets Pisces, Aries, Leo, etc. Kings and queens are lavishly depicted on thrones surrounded by retainers (f. 21, fr. 573); Julius Caesar welcomes a knight in full armor (f. 22b, same ms.). Battle scenes with mounted knights are not infrequent. A more general miniature to explain the title, shows three carefully drawn men looking at rich treasures of coins and gems (f. 1, fr. 9142).

The human and Biblical figures on the miniatures are variously drawn and clothed. Their costumes may be simple in the form of short togas (f. 1, fr. 191), or regal in appearance. Especially on the later manuscripts, they consist of long robes and voluminous capes (fr. 567), fur-trimmed, striped or patterned, with exaggerated gold decoration. An occasional moneybag may dangle from a loosely fitted belt. Hats are modelled in various shapes, even to the addition of white ermine. Pointed black shoes are a preferred style in footwear. Men of the Church will be elaborately attired in luxurious brocades, along with precious broaches, mitres, and croziers, though some monks appear in their conventional habits. White scrolls that convey words of wisdom may issue from their mouths. Knights come forth into battle protected by cumbersome armor, shields, spears, and plumed helmets. Clowns will sport dual-colored costumes characteristic of their station. Mens' faces, crudely done on the earlier manuscripts, appear even on later copies to lack definite features, and reveal rather a blank countenance with staring eyes: There is little of the art of a Jean Clouet here. Ornamental design in preference to natural features attracted the illuminators of the period. The face of Christ, however, generally bears a clear aspect: grey beard and hair, rosy cheeks and lips (f. 14, fr. 573). Attitudes, although varied, are often awkward and clumsy. The gestures of the characters likewise seem stiff and theatrical; at times they present almost an art of caricature. Elongated fingers may be raised or rudely pointing towards a neighbor. The artists portray women in a similar fashion. The Virgin is a lofty statuesque figure, the folds of her garments falling gracefully into place.

Coloring, far from attractive on some early thirteenth century manuscripts, at times even smudged, assumes a pronounced beauty on later copies of the Trésor. A brilliant palette characterizes most carefully executed paintings and adds distinct vitality to the handsome copies. Rose, red, and royal blue are preferred shades for clothing. A bright blue sky with cloud effects may be used in the fifteenth century. A wealth of dazzling tones may embellish an orb with concentric circles (f. 3, fr. 567). Gold can be scattered about to enrich the design on paintings or constitute their frame. It will be used to indicate the heavy folds of costumes, or shine symbolically in the background to represent the glorious divine light forming halos around the heads of holy figures. Green may be utilized for tiled floors, grass, and the sea painted at the bottom of miniatures. The use of white affords a striking contrast for the garments of Christ. Human skin, especially that of women, is given a pale pinkish-white shade. Imaginative surrealistic shades repeatedly enhance folios on fr. 191, and provide moments of enchantment for the reader; towers of buildings appear pink as well as grey. Ms. fr. 573 shows distinct originality in its illuminations: its warm reddish-brown skies form a background for delicately shaded costumes. There is on the whole, nevertheless, scant use of the poetry of light and dark in tonal values.

The miniatures of the Trésor manuscripts, often small, disclose a mass of tiny detailed figures in their composition. A series of concentric circles illustrating the orbit of the universe may reveal minute Lilliputian figures within. There is little use of perspective. During the thirteenth century, copies show designs sketchily drawn and simpler in makeup. The people inside rooms are sometimes out of proportion, and a lack of reality may be apparent in the construction of the human body: a hand will assume the size of a face. The background of a painting may reveal various swirls of movement and a mosaic pattern. There is the characteristic medieval emphasis on subject matter at the expense of material form.

Despite the fact that few buildings are viewed on these manuscripts, one can comprehend the ornateness and at the same time the solidity of medieval architecture from the structures painted. The framework of Noah's Ark is significant: One end resembles a rounded castle tower, the other, a carved cathedral entrance (f. 7b, fr. 567). A single arch may symbolize a church, a turret, a castle. Small churches in gothic style provide a setting for religious scenes. Pointed arches, richly sculptured, or elegant classical pillars may furnish a stage for the action. The artists depict also massive grey stone châteaux protected by crenelated walls and rounded towers. Irregular roof effects for tiny houses in a town, reminiscent of the ancient guild halls found today around squares of Belgian cities such as Brussels and Antwerp, may point to a Northern French origin for certain manuscripts (fr. 191). Interiors of buildings disclose strong stone walls with small square windows, large fireplaces, and slender columns; green tiled floors complete the décor (fr. 191). The ceilings of rooms may carry heavy wooden beams (f. 1, n.a. 6591). The furniture, in the form of heavy desks, tables, chairs, and benches, is characteristic of the period. The scribe's chair is frequently more picturesque, featuring a carved top with tapestry back; his desk may have a Jacobean stand (f. 1, n.a. 6591) or a solid base carved in a leaf motif (f. 13, fr. 573). The patron may sit on an elaborate throne embellished by rich materials. Altars, on the other hand perhaps by way of contrast, remain simple and white.

Landscape, neglected for the most part, assumes the basic form of grass, trees, stream, and sea. It is a landscape of symbols, rather than a careful delineation by a sensitive observer. A single green tree or a cluster of low shrubs may represent a whole forest, a wavy green expanse portray the ocean. A slight use of perspective enhances the fifteenth century manuscripts that disclose trees and bushes disappearing in the distance. A pebbled pathway may adjoin the moat around the walls of a castle, jagged brown rocks constitute the background for the picture. A few dainty flowers can grow scattered about to beautify the countryside (f. 26b, fr. 573).

Ghastly scenes of horror, evidenced in numerous other artistic masterpieces of the Middle Ages occur here also. The painters depict slaughter in combat and torture of various types. St. John the Baptist stands with his sword upraised, while another carries off his head (f. 31b, fr. 566). There is the gory representation of a knight striking a king on his throne (f. 23b, fr. 573). Blood pours forth from the wounded arms, feet, and side of Christ nailed to the cross in a vivid portrayal of the crucifixion (f. 26, same ms.). Ideals of humility and suffering frequently inspired these medieval painters.

Realism, in its most familiar aspects, is not absent from these miniatures. The depiction of incidents from every-day life lends a forceful impression to certain manuscripts. Knights are mounted on prancing steeds. Two workmen may be seen building a boat (f. 7b, fr. 567); others with trowels and shovels are engaged in the construction of a tower (Pt. 3, fr. 191). The pursuits of country life find their interpreters. A peasant riding a horse pulls a heavily laden cart (f. 68, fr. 571). A fire blazes realistically in a stone furnace. A wide variety of domestic and wild animals are shown to inhabit the earth in the portion of the text decribing the nature of animals. Donkeys and sheep peek out of Noah's Ark or leap aboard. Fish swim in the sea to illustrate the chapter concerning the nature of fish (f. 45b, fr. 1110).

The manuscripts of Brunetto Latini's Trésor are on the whole richly decorated and reveal a love of ornate beauty typical of the Middle Ages. The thirteenth and early fourteenth century copies remain simpler in their pictorial expression and are more crudely executed. The miniaturists, misled by a love of detail, have not yet mastered the art of composition. The intense religious feeling prevalent at this time becomes obvious from the stirring Biblical figures portrayed on the paintings: Christ in his glory, adoring angels in prayer, devout Christians kneeling before altars, are used to convey a deep religious message. The artists pay little heed to landscape and architecture. The human being is the focal point for careful study. His long Rodin-like fingers receive special attention. He is frequently brilliantly attired. Ms. fr. 9142 from the fifteenth century is more sophisticated in minute design and subdued colors, conveying true splendor. There exists at times a sharp contrast between the blunt realism found on the pictures of every-day life and their fantastic, bright coloring and detailed ornamentation. The miniatures follow closely the text in its storehouse of learning and serve to explain it, that is, the varied chapters on rhetoric, religion, Fortune, creation, and the nature of man and animals, etc. They embody a narrative art. The manuscripts show a wealth of imagination and originality in the marginal decoration. The copies for the most part well-preserved, mirror a fascinating life of the Middle Ages. The illustrators have skilfully captured the didactic spirit of the text itself. It is little wonder that this encyclopedia of knowledge by one of Dante's teachers became a useful tool for any cultured man.

Notes

1. Brunetto Latini was probably born in Florence about 1220. He was renowned for his learning, knowing well Latin, French, and Tuscan. A notary by profession, he taught rhetoric and had among his pupils Guido Cavalcanti and Dante (See Inferno, XV, 82-87). He took an active part in the political life of Florence, becoming one of the leaders of the Guelph faction. On the defeat of his party, he went to France. In 1269 he returned to his native city to enter the governmental council where he remained in political life till his death in 1294. He translated into Tuscan several classical texts, notably the Ethics of Aristotle, and speeches of Cicero. But his principal work is the Trésor which he wrote while exiled in France. See Thor Sundby, Della Vita e delle opere di Brunetto Latini, monograph (Florence, Le Monnier, 1884).

2. Editions of the Trésor are as follows: Li Livres dou Tresor, P. Chabaille (Paris, Imprimerie Impériale, 1863); and the F. J. Carmody edition, Berkeley, California, 1948.

3. It is to be remembered that the thirteenth century produced several encyclopedias. Gautier de Metz published in 1246 Image du monde. Barthelemy l'Anglais compiled in Latin his Proprietas rerum (c. 1250). Vincent de Beauvais published Speculum doctrinale in 1250, followed by Speculum historiale, and Speculum naturale.

4. Regarding Latini's sources see F. J. Carmody, “Latin Sources of B. Latini's World History,” Speculum, XI, 1936, 359-69, and his “Latini's Sources of Natural Science,” Speculum, 12, 1937, 359-66; also Madeleine Dillay, “Une Source latine de B. Latini,” Mél. Brunel, I, 1955, 366-86; and Paget Toynbee, “Latini's Obligations to Solinus,” Romania, 1894, 62.

5. Bono Giamboni translated the Trésor into Italian during the same century that it was written (See Luigi Gaiter ed., Bologna, Romagnoli, 1871-83, 4 vols.). Brunetto also composed in Italian his poem Tesoretto, an abridgment in allegorical form of the Trésor. The poem remained unfinished.

6. Other manuscripts (that show no miniatures) at the same library are: fr. 568, 569, 1111, 1114, 2024, 2025, 19088, 19089, 24254, n.a. 10261, n.a. 21012. See L. Delisle, Recherches sur la librairie de Charles V, II, 77.

7. For information regarding the manuscripts of the Trésor in general, see M. Mincwitz, “Notice de quelques mss. du Trésor,” Romania, 38, 1909, 111-19; and F. J. Carmody, “Genealogy of the Mss. of the ‘Trésor,’” Zeitschrift für romanische philologie, LX, 1940, 78-81.

8. A plate from BN fr. 726, f. 112, showing Brunetto offering his book to his patron, is reproduced on p. 334 of Ch.-V. Langlois, La Vie en France au moyen âge, vol. III (Hachette, 1927).