Background

Download PDF PDF Page Citation Cite Share Link Share

British life in 1932 was very different from American life. Almost an entire generation of men had been lost in World War I. Oxford University enrollment was only 491 in 1917, down from 3,181 in 1914. Among many of the upper-class poets and writers of the time—sometimes called the Auden Generation, after the poet W. H. Auden—there was a sense of disillusionment and futility. Britain’s foreign investments had been depleted by war debts and loans. Higher living standards, prices, wages, and taxes became the order of the day in post-war Britain. By 1922 overpopulation had caused passage of the Empire Settlement Act to encourage and finance settlement in the dominions.

The 1920s were also years of mass unemployment, and the Communist Soviet Union was making inroads into the labor movement. After many wars, those on the home front who had sacrificed for the war effort felt they deserved their just rewards.

In 1908, Henry Ford introduced the Model T, in “any color you choose so long as it’s black.” In 1914, he opened his Highland Park, Michigan, factory, equipped with the first electric conveyor belt assembly line. A Model T could now be assembled in ninety-three minutes. Consequently, Ford had forty-five percent of the new automobile market. He paid his workers the highest wages in the industry—a whopping five dollars a day. In return, he demanded that his workers live by his standards: wives were not to work or take in boarders, employees were not to drink in local bars, and families were to attend church each Sunday. He sent men out into the workers’ neighborhoods to make sure his rules were being followed. Ford was considered a bigot and was also paranoid; he feared for his family’s lives. By creating Greenfield Village near Detroit, he tried to recapture and reproduce what he viewed as a simple, happy past—the good old days.

Thus, science not only gave humanity a better knowledge of the world, and the technology to make living “easier,” but it also gave them new means of destroying themselves. The same gasoline engine used to propel automobiles and trains was reinvented for use in airplanes that could drop bombs—as early as World War I. Science and technology together began recreating industry, which for more people than Henry Ford meant bigger profits and anxieties.

Additionally, the advent of electrical lighting in both home and factory created shift work, which, of course, interferes with established biological rhythms. Electricity also created a brighter nightlife with more possibilities, and it gave the middle and upper classes new appliances to make living easier and more comfortable.

The assembly lines, with their shift work, forced workers to meet the demands of both human and machine. Workers could spend an entire shift in one place along the assembly line, repeating the same action again and again. Thus, a worker answered to two bosses—one human, one mechanical. Only one understood pain and fatigue, however, and only one could stop the other. Consequently, most workers were more likely to be driven by machines than to actually drive them.

This was the newly mechanized, scientific, controlled world which became the model for Huxley’s Brave New World, which one critic regarded as “an exercise in pessimistic prognostication, a terrifying Utopia.”

In 1958, Huxley wrote Brave New World Revisited, in which he discussed what he perceived as the threats to humanity that had developed since the publication of his novel in 1932. These threats were overpopulation, propaganda, scientific advancement, and his belief that humanity must not give up their freedom for the unthinking ease of a life organized by the power of a few over the masses. This was something that had happened in Germany, Soviet Russia, and Communist China since 1932.

Huxley saw scientific progress as a vain deceit which would produce a world with no joy—one in which endeavors are frustrated and sexual satisfaction becomes ashes. Brave New World is the utopian nightmare of scientific deceit, unlike the futuristic novels of H. G. Wells, whose optimism held that humanity falls to rise again.

Historical Context

Download PDF PDF Page Citation Cite Share Link Share

When Huxley penned Brave New World in 1931, the world was at the onset of a global depression. The American stock market crash of 1929 had led to bank closures, wiped out countless savings, and caused unemployment rates to skyrocket. Additionally, American farmers were enduring some of the most severe droughts in history, resulting in widespread poverty and mass migration from the farming regions. People yearned for the economic stability that Huxley portrays for the citizens in his fictional universe.

The repercussions of the crash were being felt globally, including in England, where Huxley resided. While economic concerns were significant, Huxley was also acutely aware of the social and scientific transformations sweeping the world, particularly throughout the 1920s. Technology was swiftly replacing many workers, yet politicians assured that progress would resolve unemployment and economic issues. In reality, workers had to accept whatever jobs were available. Often, unskilled or semi-skilled laborers worked long hours without receiving overtime pay, under unsafe conditions, and without benefits such as health insurance or pensions. Unlike the inhabitants of the brave new world, they had no job security and no guarantees. Additionally, they frequently had limited time for leisure and little money to spend on entertainment or material luxuries.

To boost consumer demand for their products, manufacturers turned to advertising to persuade people to spend their money on goods and services. Henry Ford, who innovated the modern factory assembly line, was now capable of mass-producing cars efficiently. For the first time, car parts were interchangeable and easily accessible, and Ford intentionally kept the price of his Model T low enough for his workers to afford. To pay for these new automobiles, many people who lacked sufficient cash began to make installment payments, making buying on credit acceptable. Soon, people were purchasing other items on credit, stimulating the economy through overspending and accruing debt.

All these economic disruptions influenced Huxley’s vision of the future. He viewed Ford’s production and management techniques as revolutionary and chose to elevate Ford to a divine status in his novels. Huxley also foresaw that technology could eventually grant workers substantial leisure time. While this could lead to more time for creating art and addressing social issues, Huxley’s Controllers, seeing these activities as threats to their established order, decided to provide trivial distractions to occupy their workers. These future workers dutifully bought more and more material goods to keep the economy thriving, even to the extent of discarding clothes rather than repairing them.

During Huxley’s era, societal values and ideas were rapidly evolving. The youth of the 1920s distanced themselves from the strict Victorian principles upheld by their parents. They explored contemporary ideologies, such as communism, and began to challenge the rigid views on social hierarchy. Some adopted the notion of free love, as promoted by figures like author Gertrude Stein (1874–1946). Conversations about sex became more public, and the use of contraceptives gained popularity, thanks to Margaret Sanger (1883–1966), a prominent advocate of the birth control movement in America. Women started smoking in public, cutting their hair into short, boyish styles, and wearing shorter, looser skirts. These progressive sexual attitudes are exaggerated in Brave New World.

At the same time, scientists were delving into human engineering possibilities. Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) demonstrated the creation of conditioned responses in animals. For instance, he rang a bell whenever he fed dogs, and eventually, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even without food. John B. Watson (1878–1958), a colleague of Pavlov, established the behaviorist school of psychology, proposing that humans could be understood as networks of stimuli and responses, controllable by those conducting experiments on them. In the 1930s, German Nobel laureate Hans Spemann (1869–1941) advanced experimental embryology, manipulating a human fetus's environment in the womb to influence its development. The eugenics movement, aimed at limiting the reproduction of lower-class people of color, also gained traction in the 1920s.

Concurrently, hypnopaedia, or sleep teaching, became a trend in the 1920s and 1930s. People aimed to learn passively by listening to educational tapes while asleep. Although the invention of the electroencephalograph in 1929, which measures brain waves, showed that learning during sleep is limited, it also indicated that hypnopaedia can affect emotions and beliefs. Additionally, the theories of Viennese physician Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), the pioneer of modern psychoanalysis, gained popularity. Freud believed that many psychological issues originate from early childhood experiences. Huxley integrated these technological and psychological advancements into his novel, portraying the Controllers as misusing this knowledge to dominate their citizens.

Brave New World was penned just before the rise of totalitarian leaders such as Adolf Hitler in Germany, Benito Mussolini in Italy, Joseph Stalin in Russia, and Mao Tse-tung in China, who established authoritarian regimes in nations plagued by economic and political instability. These dictators employed extreme measures to control their populations, including propaganda, censorship, and mass murder. Though Huxley could not foresee these developments, the bleak totalitarian states that emerged heavily influenced George Orwell’s dystopian novel 1984 (1948) and were significantly shaped by Huxley’s Brave New World.

Expert Q&A

The significance of the Nine Years War in Brave New World

The Nine Years' War in Brave New World is significant because it led to the establishment of the World State. The war caused widespread devastation and chaos, prompting society to adopt extreme measures for stability and control. This resulted in the creation of a highly regulated, technologically advanced society that suppresses individuality and enforces conformity to prevent future conflicts.

Why is religion eradicated in Brave New World by Aldous Huxley?

In Brave New World, religion is transformed rather than eradicated to maintain societal control. The society replaces traditional religious practices with the Solidarity Service and soma communion to eliminate independent thought and maintain uniformity. This change ensures all individuals share the same experiences, crucial for the collective vision of a "perfect" society. Different religious paths create diverse emotional and spiritual experiences, which threaten the conformity needed to sustain the utopian society depicted by Huxley.

Conflicts and political issues in Brave New World that exist in today's society and the U.S

Conflicts and political issues in Brave New World that resonate with today's society and the U.S. include the tension between individual freedom and state control, the impact of technology on human relationships, and the pursuit of happiness through artificial means. These themes highlight ongoing debates about privacy, the role of government, and the ethical implications of technological advancements in modern life.

How does the caste system in Brave New World compare to our societal class system, particularly in terms of interaction between diverse groups?

The caste system in Brave New World and the class system in our culture are similar in that they both divide people into groups, and the lower castes tend to be more oppressed. The difference is that the castes of Brave New World are genetically engineered to have certain traits; the lower classes in our society develop their conditions through socialization.

How does Brave New World relate to Karl Marx's theories and a Marxist society?

Brave New World contrasts with Marxist theories by depicting a society based on inequality and a caste system, rather than the classless society Marx envisioned. While both Marx and Huxley predict the end of capitalism, Huxley's world is not socialist but state-controlled, with genetic engineering replacing owner class dominance. It mirrors Marx's critique of capitalism by exaggerating class stratification and control, highlighting a dystopian future if capitalism's flaws are unchecked.

How does Huxley use Ford's assembly line methods to maintain stability and advance his themes in the society?

Huxley uses Ford's assembly line methods in the World State to illustrate themes of stability and conformity. Ford replaces God, symbolizing materialism and the absence of spiritual values. The society mass-produces babies and conditions citizens to consume, ensuring economic stability. This deification of Ford critiques the superficiality of a consumer-driven culture, showing how it prioritizes consumption and conformity over deeper human values like love, family, and the arts.

Do the castes in Brave New World reflect contemporary society or are they hypothetical?

The caste system in Brave New World is primarily hypothetical but reflects real societal structures. Huxley drew inspiration from India's rigid caste system and British societal hierarchies, as seen in the works of Charles Dickens. The novel's exaggerated caste system serves as a satirical commentary on social stratification. Although the system is fictional, it echoes the real-world perception of job hierarchies and social roles, highlighting issues of class and societal division.

In Brave New World, how does the author reference social criticism?

Aldous Huxley uses Brave New World to critique social trends by exaggerating them to highlight their flaws. He targets materialism, loss of individuality, and superficiality through a dystopian society that values stability over freedom. The novel satirizes eugenics, consumerism, and emotional suppression, portraying a world where conditioning and drugs replace genuine human experiences. Huxley's social commentary warns against sacrificing individuality and critical thinking for security and comfort.

Is Brave New World prophetic of our future society?

While some aspects of Aldous Huxley's Brave New World appear prophetic, such as the rise of a consumer culture and reliance on technology, significant differences remain. Today's society does not experience the extreme government control depicted in the novel, as people are freer and have more access to information. Although advertising influences desires, it is not as systematic as in Huxley's dystopia. Overall, the novel's vision of a controlled society hasn't fully materialized.

The relevance of Huxley's predictions about consumerism in today's society

Huxley's predictions about consumerism are highly relevant in today's society. His foresight into the increasing dominance of materialism, the influence of advertising, and the pursuit of instant gratification mirrors contemporary consumer culture. Modern society often prioritizes consumption and immediate pleasure, reflecting the concerns Huxley expressed about the potential consequences of unchecked consumerism.

Show another question (1 question hidden)

Social Concerns

Download PDF PDF Page Citation Cite Share Link Share

Aldous Huxley is often compared to H. G. Wells as a popularizer of science. However, unlike Wells, who envisioned science as a path to a utopian future, Huxley viewed it as a potential threat to humanity and personal freedom. In contrast to Wells’s The Shape of Things to Come (1933), Huxley’s Brave New World depicts a society where humans have been reduced to obedient robots by an authoritarian government employing various scientific methods, from eugenics and postnatal conditioning to mental torture and sedative drugs. It is a dystopian world characterized by unthinking compliance to authority, where acts of rebellion are met with seductive coercion that reforms as it entices. Huxley was more concerned with the use of technology for control rather than liberation.

The release of Brave New World coincided with the rise of totalitarian regimes around the globe, a timing that was not accidental. The novel reflects many fears prevalent in Western Europe at the time. Although less warlike in tone than George Orwell’s later novel 1984 (1948), Huxley’s work still offers a serious critique of authoritarian governments. It not only questions oligarchical power but also scrutinizes the dubious role of science in achieving and maintaining that power. Scientists are depicted not as saviors of humanity but as its oppressors. This critique was powerful and contributed to the post-war climate of scientific skepticism, especially in the debate sparked by the use of the atomic bomb.

Huxley was also troubled by a growing trend in Western societies towards social and political uniformity, which led to a homogenized mass culture reduced to the lowest common denominator. The result of such uniformity was a widespread experience of unrelieved dullness and mindlessness, turning both democratic and socialist societies into groups of easily manipulated and controlled individuals, pacified by a constant supply of entertainment and basic needs.

Like Orwell’s 1984, Brave New World has become a symbol of one of the primary dystopian visions of the future in the popular imagination. The title of Huxley’s book is now shorthand for the potential fate of society if science is not properly regulated. References to both books often mistakenly assume they depict similar future visions, overlooking the differences between the coercive restrictions in Orwell’s world and the more insidious and alluring reward system in Huxley’s. From the perspective of the late twentieth century, it seems that Huxley’s fictional world offers a more plausible blueprint for future restrictive societies in industrialized nations.

Compare and Contrast

Download PDF PDF Page Citation Cite Share Link Share

  • 1920s: Scientist Ivan Pavlov conducts behavioral experiments, demonstrating that animals can develop a conditioned response. John B. Watson establishes the behaviorist school of thought, asserting that human behavior can be reduced to a series of stimuli and responses, which can be manipulated by the experimenter.

    1930s: German Nobel Prize winner Hans Spemann pioneers the controversial field of experimental embryology, manipulating the experiences of a human fetus in the womb to influence its development.

    Huxley’s London, 731 A.D.: All humans are cloned from a limited number of fertilized eggs, incubated in artificial wombs (bottles), and conditioned as embryos and fetuses for their predetermined roles in society.

    Today: In 1978, the first human baby conceived in vitro (in a test tube) is born. In 1997, the first sheep is cloned, opening the door to the possibility of human cloning.

  • 1920s: Totalitarian leaders Joseph Stalin in Russia and Benito Mussolini in Italy rise to power.

    1931: Totalitarian figures Francisco Franco (Spain) and Adolf Hitler (Germany) are on the verge of seizing power. In China, communist leader Mao Tse-tung is vying for control, though he will not achieve it until the late 1940s.

    Huxley’s London, 731 A.D.: The world is governed by Controllers in a totalitarian state, where technology, brainwashing, and pre-birth conditioning are used to control citizens, rather than violence and intimidation.

Get Ahead with eNotes

Start your 48-hour free trial to access everything you need to rise to the top of the class. Enjoy expert answers and study guides ad-free and take your learning to the next level.

Get 48 Hours Free Access
Previous

Style, Form, and Literary Elements

Next

Connections and Further Reading

Loading...