townships had actual theaters. Kente largely avoided overtly political topics but was imprisoned briefly in 1976 when his playHow Long? (1973), which criticized the pass laws, was adapted into a film and gained broader public attention. Other "alternative" companies, such as the Space Theatre in Cape Town and the Market Theatre in Johannesburg, found ways to circumvent the laws segregating theater. They staged works by both black and white South Africans with mixed casts and occasionally mixed audiences.

The laws enforcing segregation of casts and audiences were not repealed until 1977. By then, the rebellious South African alternative theater had produced many notable playwrights and performers. John Kani, Winston Ntshona, Pieter-Dirk Uys, Fatima Dike (the first black South African woman to have a play published), and Athol Fugard began their careers during the peak of apartheid. They are often credited with raising both national and international awareness of South Africa's issues, ultimately contributing to the end of racial segregation and the restoration of rights to the black majority.

Set against the backdrop of apartheid in South Africa, Boesman and Lena by Athol Fugard is a play that deeply explores the human condition and societal challenges of its time. Through its distinctive setting, circular narrative style, and rich literary heritage, Fugard crafts a narrative that is both a personal journey and a striking commentary on the socio-political landscape of the era. The play stands as a poignant example of how art can be a powerful tool for social change, reflecting the complexities and struggles of life under apartheid.

Setting

In the early 1960s, South Africa was a land of stark contrasts and deep divisions. Captured vividly in Boesman and Lena, the setting plays a crucial role in conveying the oppressive atmosphere of the time. The apartheid regime dictated every aspect of life, enforcing severe restrictions on where people could live, work, and whom they could associate with. Amidst this backdrop, the play unfolds on the mudflats of the Swartkops River outside Port Elizabeth. This location is not just a physical space but a symbol of the bleak existence faced by the oppressed. Here, the characters Boesman and Lena navigate their precarious lives, scavenging for food and materials discarded by the ruling white class, their plight emblematic of the broader societal inequities.

Circular Structure

The narrative structure of Boesman and Lena aligns with the "Theatre of the Absurd," a movement characterized by its circular storytelling. Plays of this genre often end where they begin, suggesting the futility and repetitiveness of life. While there is slight character development—Boesman gains a marginal appreciation for Lena's companionship and Lena finds a glimmer of hope following Outa's death—their physical journey remains unchanged. At the play's conclusion, Boesman and Lena are still on the run, caught in a relentless cycle of seeking refuge in familiar shantytowns, a testament to the inescapable nature of their societal status and personal despair.

Literary Heritage

Fugard's work is deeply rooted in the tumultuous history of South Africa, a nation rich in cultural diversity yet plagued by racial division. The play reflects the country's historical struggle where the white minority wielded power over the black majority. Fugard wrote Boesman and Lena during a period when the apartheid government had strictly segregated black Africans, assigning them to Bantustans and curtailing their movements. This oppressive environment severely limited artistic expression, particularly in theater, where mixed-race casts and audiences were prohibited until 1977.

Despite these restrictions, the arts became a form of resistance. Playwrights like Athol Fugard used theater to voice dissent and highlight the inequities of apartheid. Fugard faced censorship and restrictions but continued to create powerful narratives that resonated on both personal and political levels. His work, including Boesman and Lena, employs intimate character studies set against the harsh realities of apartheid, effectively shedding light on the broader socio-political issues while maintaining a deeply human element.

The Role of Theater in Social Change

Theater during apartheid was not just entertainment but a platform for political expression and change. While the South African government imposed stringent laws to suppress dissent, theater artists found innovative ways to resist. Some formed all-black touring groups, while others, like the Space Theatre and the Market Theatre, pushed boundaries with mixed-race casts. These productions were instrumental in raising awareness about the injustices of apartheid, both locally and internationally.

Athol Fugard's legacy is a testament to the transformative power of theater. His plays, often characterized by small casts and intimate settings, reflect the broader struggles of South African society under apartheid. Through poignant storytelling and rich character development, Fugard not only entertained but also educated and inspired audiences to challenge the status quo. His contributions to theater are celebrated for their role in galvanizing public opinion against apartheid and for advocating for social justice.

Boesman and Lena remains a significant work in Fugard's repertoire, illustrating his masterful ability to intertwine personal narratives with political commentary. The play's setting, structure, and themes reflect the harsh realities of its time while offering a timeless exploration of human resilience and the enduring quest for dignity amidst adversity. Fugard's influence extends beyond the theater, as his works continue to resonate with new generations, reminding us of the enduring power of art to effect change.

1960: In Sharpeville, 69 black individuals were killed when police opened fire on a crowd of anti-apartheid demonstrators. Following this event, all black African political organizations, including the African National Congress (ANC) and other opposition groups, were banned.

Today: During the 1990s, white South African President F. W. de Klerk played a key role in dismantling apartheid policies and restoring representative power to black African unions and political organizations.

1969: Approximately one million black individuals are arrested each year for violating the "Pass Laws," a strict set of regulations dictating where blacks can live and work. These laws required all black South Africans to carry a "reference book" listing their personal information and employment history at all times.

Today: The pass laws were abolished in 1986 as the dismantling of apartheid began. Now, all South African citizens can move freely within their country, choosing where to live and work.

1969: Afrikaans and English are the only official languages of South Africa, despite being spoken as first languages by only a small segment of the population.

Today: The 1994 constitution added nine more languages to the list of officially recognized languages in South Africa: Zulu, Xhosa, Sesotho sa Leboa, Tswana, Sesotho, Tsonga, Venda, Ndebele, and siSwati. Along with English and Afrikaans, these languages represent 98 percent of the South African population.

1969: Education for black and coloured individuals in South Africa is vastly inferior to that provided for whites. Black students have fewer classrooms, textbooks, and teachers. Only a few schools have science laboratories, and per-student spending on black students is less than 25% of that allocated to white students.

Today: Fourteen separate education departments have been consolidated into one nondiscriminatory educational system. The government's goal is to provide ten years of mandatory, state-sponsored education for all children. However, South Africa still faces significant shortages of teachers, textbooks, and classroom facilities, and is striving to fund extensive educational reforms.

1969: Playwright Athol Fugard is considered a political risk by the South African government. His plays are censored, he faces restrictions on producing works for mixed-race audiences, and he is sometimes prevented from leaving and re-entering his home country.

Today: Fugard is celebrated both in South Africa and internationally as one of the greatest living playwrights in the English language. He is credited with helping to dismantle the apartheid system through his powerful dramas and now travels freely around the world as a writer, actor, and director.

Boesman and Lena was first brought to the screen in 1973. This South African film was directed by Ross Devenish and featured Yvonne Bryceland as Lena and Athol Fugard himself in the role of Boesman.

The story saw another adaptation in 1999. Directed by American filmmaker John Berry, this version starred Danny Glover and Angela Bassett. Filmed on location in Cape Town, the movie was a collaborative effort between South Africa's Primedia Pictures and Pathe Image, a French subsidiary of Pathe, France's oldest film company.

Sources
Branford, Jean. Review of Boesman and Lena, in Athol Fugard, edited by Stephen Gray. McGraw-Hill, 1982, p. 80.

Brockett, Oscar G. "The Theatre of Africa: South Africa," in History of the Theatre, 8th ed. Allyn and Bacon, 1998, pp. 658-65.

Cohen, Derek. Review of Boesman and Lena, in Canadian Drama, Spring, 1980, pp. 151-61.

Disch, Thomas M. Review of Boesman and Lena, in Nation, March 2, 1992.

Esslin, Martin. The Theatre of the Absurd. Anchor Books, 1962, pp. 290-91.

Fugard, Athol. Boesman and Lena and Other Plays. Oxford University Press, 1974, pp. vii-xxv.

---. Notebooks 1960-1977, edited by A. D. Donker, 1983, pp. 65-7, 124.

Gussow, Mel. Review of Boesman and Lena, in Athol Fugard, edited by Stephen Gray. McGraw-Hill, 1982, p. 94.

Jacobson, Dan. "The Poetry of Poverty," in Guardian Weekly, August 10, 1974, reprinted in Athol Fugard, edited by Stephen Gray. McGraw-Hill, 1982, p. 82.

McLuckie, Craig W. "Power, Self, and Other: the Absurd in Boesman and Lena," in Twentieth Century Literature, Winter, 1993, p. 423.

Miller, Arthur. "Tragedy and the Common Man," in New York Times, February 27, 1949, reprinted in Dramatic Theory and Criticism, edited by Bernard F. Dukore. Holt, Rinehart, 1974, p. 896.

Further Reading
Brockett, Oscar G. History of the Theatre, 8th ed. Allyn and Bacon, 1998. Brockett's History of the Theatre is an extensive volume that spans over 2,000 years of global theatrical tradition. Notably, the chapter "The Theatre of Africa," added in the seventh edition, delves into the history and performance traditions of Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Zaire, and various other African nations, including South Africa.

Fugard, Athol. Notebooks 1960-1977, edited by A. D. Donker, 1983. Athol Fugard began maintaining notebooks of his reflections and experiences in 1959 during a trip to Europe with his wife. His initial entries formed the basis for his 1960 play The Blood Knot. These notebooks, filled with brief sketches and ideas, have continuously inspired the characters, plots, and themes of his plays. This collection documents the first half of Fugard's career, from The Blood Knot to a 1977 production of Sizwe Banzi Is Dead at London's Royal Court Theatre.

Gray, Stephen, ed. Athol Fugard. McGraw-Hill, 1982. This compilation of scholarly work on Athol Fugard is part of the "South African Literature Series." It includes a chronological account of Fugard's life, reviews of his plays, critical essays, interviews with the playwright, and an extensive bibliography for further research.

Thompson, Leonard. A History of South Africa. Yale University Press, 1996. Thompson presents a comprehensive history of South Africa, covering the period from its earliest known inhabitants to the present day, with a particular focus on the experiences of the black majority population.

Waldmeir, Patti. Anatomy of a Miracle: The End of Apartheid and the Birth of the New South Africa. Norton, 1997. Waldmeir, a journalist, developed a close relationship with Nelson Mandela and F. W. de Klerk, the key figures in the abolition of apartheid. She observed the pivotal moments that led to the unification of South African society and the political empowerment of the country's black majority. In Anatomy of a Miracle, Waldmeir narrates the end of apartheid through interviews and firsthand accounts, covering the period from the turmoil of the early 1980s to Mandela's release from prison and his inauguration as president in 1994.