History of Peru

For thousands of years, Peru was inhabited, but it wasn't until the 12th century that the Quechua-speaking Incas established an empire. This empire endured until the Spanish conquest in 1533. Peru remained a Spanish colony until 1821 and then experienced numerous upheavals until a period of stability began in 1844. A republican constitution governed from 1860 to 1920, although Peru didn’t see its first civilian president until 1872. The government accrued foreign debts due to an expensive public works program, which, compounded by a war with Chile, led to the creation of the Peruvian Corporation in 1889. This London-based entity was granted rights to mine up to three million tons of guano, control the railways for sixty-six years, and receive annual payments of eighty thousand British pounds. While this arrangement prevented economic collapse, it was resented by Peruvians for the loss of national autonomy and prestige.

Subsequently, a power struggle emerged between the Creole upper class and liberals advocating for social and economic reforms. The Democratic Party was established and won the presidency in 1895, promising direct suffrage, enhanced local self-governance, and public education. These efforts led to positive economic growth and were followed by Augusto Leguia y Salcedo's leadership from the Civilian Party between 1908-1912 and 1919-1930. Despite his dictatorial rule, Leguia increased sugar and cotton production and resolved a boundary dispute with Chile. In 1920, he endorsed a new constitution protecting Indian lands from sale or seizure, though this provision was not enforced. This led indigenous Peruvians to organize and drew members to the Communist Party.

During this era, César Vallejo pursued his college education and penned his first poetry collection, The Black Heralds. With both grandmothers being natives, Vallejo was familiar with the Quechua language, which he occasionally incorporated into his poetry. While working on a plantation to fund his education, he witnessed the harsh conditions endured by exploited laborers. Given his background and the social climate, it is unsurprising that the opening poem of his debut collection addresses the oppression of the masses.

Post–World War I Artistic Movements

From the late 19th century until 1918, the modernist movement emerged alongside the Industrial Revolution and mechanization. Modernists argued for society's adaptation to rapid technological advancements in all areas, believing that traditional art, literature, and social structures were inadequate. Consequently, a global revolution in the arts took place, driven by the conviction that novelty and detachment from the past were superior to what was old and traditional.

The works of Charles Darwin and Karl Marx played a pivotal role in the development of modernism. They challenged established religious and social views and questioned romantic ideas, such as the inherent superiority and morality of humans. Meanwhile, impressionist painters revolutionized art by taking it outdoors, asserting that people perceive light as it illuminates and transforms objects, rather than the objects themselves. Symbolist writers proposed that since language is inherently symbolic, writers should focus on the sound and texture of words. Adding to these departures from traditional thought was Sigmund Freud, regarded as the father of psychology, who suggested that individuals interpret the world through the lens of their own fundamental drives and instincts, making reality subjective. Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche argued that vision holds more significance than facts or material things. As a result, impressionism, symbolism, along with the contributions of Freud and Nietzsche, propelled the shift toward abstraction in art and literature. The movement emphasized freedom of expression, experimentation, radicalism, and primitivism—the belief that nature offers more authentic and healthier models than culture.

In the wake of major upheavals like the Russian Revolution and World War...

Repetition

Repetition is a hallmark technique employed by Vallejo throughout his poetic career. In “The Black Heralds,” the initial line is echoed as the closing line to emphasize and create a circular structure. This circular form may symbolize the confinement of life, which restricts humanity with both temporal and physical boundaries, or the liberties curtailed by governmental and societal hierarchies. The expression “I just don’t know” not only concludes the first and last lines of the poem but also appears at the beginning and end of the first stanza, emphasizing the frustration of the unfathomable.

In the seventeen lines of “The Black Heralds,” Vallejo repeats the word “blows” four times: in the opening two lines to establish it as the central theme, in the eleventh line to reinforce the subject, and in the final line to highlight its significance. Furthermore, Vallejo uses ellipses before each “I just don’t know” phrase, suggesting the speaker is at a loss for words and exclaims, “I just don’t know.” The ellipsis also appears in line 5 to indicate a shift in thought, and in line thirteen (“And man . . . Poor . . . poor!”) to elongate and emphasize the pitiable state of humanity. Vallejo also incorporates similar expressions, “welled up” and “wells up,” in lines four and twelve to create a link between the poem's opening and concluding sections. Thus, repetition serves to unify the poem and acts as a rhythmic device, akin to a metronome maintaining the tempo.

Ellipses

Ellipsis points are not solely used to denote omissions in quotations; writers also employ them to convey the impression of hesitant speech. The ellipsis, comprised of three spaced dots, signifies a prolonged pause, an unfinished thought, or an idea left for the reader to resolve. Authors may choose an ellipsis over a dash or colon to capture the reader's interest.

In Vallejo’s “The Black Heralds,” the ellipsis is used six times across seventeen lines, delivering a powerful dramatic impact. In the renowned opening line, Vallejo presents an arresting statement about life's challenges, but rather than offering a profound insight into the adversities everyone faces, he interrupts the speaker with an ellipsis, followed by “I just don’t know!” This immediately signals to the reader that the poem embodies frustration. The poet seeks to discuss life's tragedies, yet the speaker quickly admits to having no answers to life’s enigmas. Vallejo employs the ellipsis along with the speaker’s exasperated “I just don’t know” two more times in the poem to convey a sense of bewilderment.

In the opening line of the second stanza, Vallejo uses an ellipsis after the speaker says, “They are few; but they are,” before revealing what the blows signify. It seems as though the speaker hesitates to elaborate on what the blows represent and instead begins a new sentence to describe their effects. The ellipsis following “but they are” suggests that “are” means “exist,” as in “They are few, but they still exist.”

In the first line of the fourth stanza, Vallejo employs ellipses to emphasize and slow down the reading. The phrase “And man . . . Poor . . . poor!” underscores the pitiable nature of “poor” and once again conveys the sense of an unfinished thought, as if delving deeper into the misery of the human condition is too distressing.

Beyond Modernismo

Vallejo's work is often associated with the modernismo (modernista) movement. This style was prominent among several notable Latin American writers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the Cuban poet Jose Marti being the initial prominent figure, and later, Chilean Ruben Dario becoming a leading figure in the movement. Vallejo was certainly familiar with these poets and their works, as they sparked a fervor in literature that extended into politics and economics, capturing global attention and influencing literary trends in Spain. Modernismo is characterized by enchanting landscapes, meticulously crafted verses that sometimes leaned toward artificial mannerisms, vivid imagery, and sophisticated, musical language. Modernistas like Leopoldo Lugones and Julio Herrera y Reissig introduced surprising imagery that Vallejo admired and emulated. While these elements appear in The Black Heralds, Vallejo was already distancing himself from the movement in his debut work by exploring darker, more realistic topics and themes of social protest, while also shedding the conventional rhetoric and embellishment typical of the style. Evaluating a translation for the patterns and rhythms of modernismo that may have existed in the original Spanish is challenging, so English-speaking readers depend on scholars to confirm the influence, especially when the subject matter, tone, and concise expressions of The Black Heralds deviate significantly from typical modernismo expectations.

Surrealism

Native Americans often utilize symbols and imagery to convey their thoughts and mystical perspectives. This made it fitting for Vallejo, given his indigenous roots, to adopt surrealism—a style characterized by dreamlike visuals that hint at the unconscious or subconscious mind. Surrealism frees poets from traditional literary norms, allowing for language that is both ambiguous and ironic, defying logical and reasonable constraints with its diverse imagery and unconventional rhythms. In "The Black Heralds," the poem's irregular rhythms are created through pauses marked by ellipses, altering the flow of thought. Vallejo's imagery in this piece is not as ambiguous as typical surrealist work. Instead, it employs everyday language and objects, yet maintains a surrealistic richness of imagery, prompting deep reflection on the psychological and physical torment experienced by the mistreated individual portrayed by Vallejo.

The language in phrases like "the backwash of everything suffered," "open dark furrows in the fiercest face and in the strongest back," "bloodstained blows," "crackling bread burning up at the oven door," and "like a pool of guilt, in his look" is straightforward. Words such as backwash, furrows, bloodstained, pool, and guilt are easy to comprehend, but when combined in these expressions, they expertly evoke vivid imagery in the reader's mind. The images derived from literary and religious references—such as "steeds of barbaric Attilas," "black heralds Death sends us," and "deep falls of the Christs of the soul"—may initially seem more complex, yet they remain accessible to the average reader. Images are meant to engage the senses, and in "The Black Heralds," they effectively stimulate four out of the five: sight, sound, touch, and smell. Presented in rapid succession within a relatively brief poem, these images create a powerful impact on the reader.

• 1918: In Russia, the Bolsheviks execute the Romanov royal family, initiating a series of events that eventually transform Russia into a communist nation. Meanwhile, Vallejo resides in Lima and becomes acquainted with political activists who attract him due to his experiences with rural poverty, plantation labor, and disillusionment with religion. This marks the beginning of his eventual involvement in the communist movement.

• Today: Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, communism's influence has significantly waned globally. However, China and North Korea maintain communist regimes, and Hugo Chavez of Venezuela gains international attention as a fervent admirer of Fidel Castro, the last major figure of Central American communism.

***

• 1918: World War I, often referred to as the war to end all wars, concludes, leaving Europe and its colonies in a state of turmoil and resentment. After relocating to Europe, Vallejo becomes embroiled in these issues, resulting in his political exile from France from 1930 to 1932. He also campaigns against fascism during the Spanish Civil War from 1936 until his death in 1938. His final significant poetry collection, Spain, Take This Cup from Me, emerges from this period.

• Today: World War I does not end all wars. Instead, the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the conflict in 1918, are later viewed as a major catalyst for World War II, which is even more global in scope. The treaty's creation of new nations and redrawing of borders contribute to ongoing conflicts in regions like Israel, Palestine, Iraq, Iran, and other parts of the Middle East.

***

• 1918: In the aftermath of the war, modernism evolves from a call for change that respects the past into a movement advocating a complete overhaul of the worldview, incorporating new technologies and philosophies. This rebellion against emotionalism typically dismisses any attempts to imitate the past or return to classical traditions.

• Today: By the 1930s, modernism becomes mainstream and remains influential until the late twentieth century when postmodernism, influenced by media, begins integrating pop culture with electronics. Postmodernism is marked by open-endedness, collage, and a self-referential irony that questions the foundations of cultural and artistic forms.

***

• 1918: Vallejo prepares his first poetry book for publication, launching his career as a writer across multiple genres. However, during his lifetime, he achieves little recognition and virtually no financial success.

• Today: Vallejo is celebrated as the greatest of all Peruvian poets, with new editions of his works and critical analyses about him continuing to be published.

Sources
Arguelles, Ivan, reviewed The Black Heralds in Library Journal, Vol. 115, Issue 6, on April 1, 1990, page 118.

Biespiel, David, wrote “Reading Guide: César Vallejo: The Ambassador of South American Surrealism,” available at Poetry Foundation (accessed on September 20, 2006).

Eshleman, Clayton, translator of The Complete Poetry of Cesar Vallejo, published by University of California Press in 2006, as referenced in Efrain Kristal's article, “César Vallejo,” in American Poetry Review, Vol. 34, No. 3, May–June 2005, on page 25.

Eshleman, Clayton, and Jose Rubia Barcia, translated Cesar Vallejo: The Complete Posthumous Poetry, published by University of California Press in 1978, as cited in Alfred J. MacAdam's article, “¡Viva Vallejo! Arriba España!” in Virginia Quarterly Review, Winter 1980, page 187.

Hays, H. R., translated Cesar Vallejo: Selected Poems, published by Sachem Press in 1981, as referenced in Julio Ortega's Latin American Writers, Vol. 2, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1989, page 730.

Hirsch, Edward, discussed “Poetry: Cesar Vallejo” in Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 4, Autumn 1995, on page 98.

Horno-Delgado, Asunción, authored “The Plural ‘I,’” in American Book Review, Vol. 13, No. 2, June–July 1991, page 22.

Kristal, Efrain, wrote “Cesar Vallejo,” in American Poetry Review, Vol. 34, No. 3, May–June 2005, on page 25.

MacAdam, Alfred J., authored “¡Viva Vallejo! Arriba España!” in Virginia Quarterly Review, Winter 1980, page 185.

Maier, Linda S., contributed “César Vallejo,” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 290: Modern Spanish American Poets, Second Series, edited by Maria A. Salgado, Thomson Gale, 2004, on page 336.

Maurer, Christopher, wrote “Through a Verse Darkly,” in New Republic, Vol. 209, No. 2, July 12, 1993, on page 34.

Ortega, Julio, contributed “Cesar Vallejo,” in Latin American Writers, Vol. 2, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1989, pages 727–28.

Rodriguez, Phyllis White, wrote “Cesar Vallejo,” in Hispania, Vol. 35, No. 2, May 1952, on page 195.

Ross, Kathleen, and Richard Schaaf, translated The Black Heralds by César Vallejo, published by Latin American Literary Review Press in 1990, noted on the jacket flap.

Seiferle, Rebecca, authored “Cesar Vallejo: The Thread of Indigenous Blood,” in The Black Heralds by César Vallejo, Copper Canyon Press, 2003, on page 1.

St. Martin, Hardie, wrote “Ring-Master in the Vallejo Circus,” in American Book Review, Vol. 15, No. 3, August–September 1993, on page 6.

Vallejo, César, authored “The Black Heralds,” in The Black Heralds, translated by Kathleen Ross and Richard Schaaf, published by Latin American Literary Review Press in 1990, on page 17.

Further Reading
Hart, Stephen M., and Jorge Cornejo Polar, authored César Vallejo: A Critical Bibliography of Research, published by Tamesis Books in 2002.

This comprehensive guide to Vallejo scholarship, created by a renowned Vallejo expert, lists sources and offers insightful evaluations of available materials.

Ortega, Julio, authored “Cesar Vallejo,” in Latin American Writers, Vol. 2, 1989, pages 727–38.

This article provides a chronological analysis of Vallejo’s work, including brief biographical details, presenting excerpts in both Spanish and English while exploring their poetic features in an engaging manner.

Starn, Orin, Ivan Degregori, and Robin Kirk, editors of The Peru Reader: History, Culture, Politics, published by Duke University Press in 1995.

This book offers a wide-ranging exploration of various aspects of Peru, featuring introductions to and excerpts from several of its authors.

Tapscott, Stephen, editor of Twentieth-Century Latin American Poetry: A Bilingual Anthology, published by University of Texas Press in 1996.

This anthology features lyrical compositions from seventy-five poets, such as Vallejo, offering insightful introductions and assessments of the authors, along with a selection of their most significant poems.