Victorian Life

The values of the Victorians were heavily influenced by the Evangelical movement, which stressed salvation, and the Utilitarian movement, which emphasized efficiency. Both movements advocated for self-control and self-denial. Victorians believed that maintaining complete self-discipline at all times was essential. Thriftiness and practicality were highly esteemed virtues, so individuals were expected to use their time and money wisely and purposefully. Hard work was considered the path to success, while laziness and drunkenness were viewed as routes to ruin.

Self-help was another respected virtue. Despite the rigid class structure in Victorian England, lower-class members were encouraged to improve themselves through education, personal growth, and temperance. There was little sympathy for those who failed to improve their circumstances, as failure was often attributed to a lack of effort. Other social factors affecting the poor were largely ignored. This attitude was mirrored in the temperance movement, which targeted the working class and overlooked alcohol issues in other classes. The primary concern was ensuring a sober workforce to boost productivity, thereby increasing the wealth of the middle and upper classes.

Victorian England was a society marked by significant poverty alongside a wealthy aristocracy and an expanding middle class. This middle class included individuals whose improved economic status enabled them to afford horses, but owning horses did not necessarily mean they knew how to care for them. As a result, horse abuse became a serious issue, which was addressed in Black Beauty. The Industrial Revolution created many new jobs and opportunities for rural people, but it also led them into urban slums. The working class naturally resented the hypocritical efforts of the temperance movement, which diverted attention from critical issues like poor sanitation, overcrowded housing, and harsh working conditions.

The Temperance Movement in Victorian England

One of the major social reform efforts in Victorian England was the temperance movement. This movement also represented a class conflict, as it was spearheaded by the middle class and directed at the working class. The primary focus was on working-class men, who drank publicly, while women typically did not. Although later feminist movements were concerned with drinking habits in the home due to their connection to domestic violence, the original aim of the temperance movement was to curb a wasteful behavior that contradicted Victorian ideals of self-control and self-denial.

Drunkenness was seen as a loss of self-control, making alcohol consumption inherently destructive. Additionally, spending money on liquor was considered a wasteful form of entertainment; instead, individuals were encouraged to save their money and avoid indulgent leisure activities.

Morality was not the sole impetus behind this movement. Industrialization required a dependable workforce for factories. Initially, the movement's goal wasn't to ban drinking altogether but to regulate it. There was also no effort to "cure" drunks, who were considered hopeless cases. Instead, the movement sought to limit social drinking. Over time, however, control was imposed through various legislative measures. Additionally, some temperance groups mandated that their members completely abstain from alcohol, but this "teetotalism" was a temporary phase, as were efforts to entirely prohibit the sale of alcoholic beverages. Another approach was to persuade workers to avoid liquor by highlighting its health risks and potential fatal consequences.

The Church of England Temperance Society was established in 1862 and became significantly involved by asserting that there were two lifestyles: church life and pub life. Its Sunday School Movement aimed to encourage working-class children to attend church and learn about temperance. However, a dispute over the use of sacramental wine eventually led to a decline in the church's temperance initiatives. Temperance stories for children began to emerge in late eighteenth-century Britain, and by the mid-nineteenth century, temperance periodicals became widespread in both Britain and the United States. Other Victorian literature, such as Black Beauty, incorporated temperance morals into their narratives. Although the Temperance Movement eventually faded as an organized cause, it succeeded in fostering a Victorian culture in England that no longer tolerated public drunkenness and viewed alcohol abuse as a dysfunction rather than a form of recreation.

Horses in Victorian Society

In the nineteenth century, horses were indispensable. They served as the primary means of transportation and provided labor for numerous tasks. Horses pulled carts, cabs, wagons, and barges on roads and city streets, worked as pit ponies in coal mines, and helped plow rural fields. Writing for Horsepower, Margaret Bennett notes that "During the 1890s, there were over 11,000 hansom cabs (the taxis of their day) alone on the streets of London, requiring twice that number of horses to operate." Despite their crucial role, horses were often treated poorly. Bennett adds that horses "frequently died in harness due to overwork and neglect." As mere laborers, they were taken for granted, beaten, and, as Ginger mentioned in the book, simply "used up." Carriage horses were subject to fashion trends that dictated docking their tails or forcing them to hold their heads unnaturally high. Without a long tail, a horse couldn't swat away flies. With its head held painfully high by a bearing or check rein, a horse couldn't utilize its full strength for pulling, breathe properly, or look around. It was these abusive practices that Sewell condemned in Black Beauty.

Written during a significant period of growth in the movement for the humane treatment of animals, Black Beauty became emblematic of this cause. Humane societies across the United States purchased and distributed thousands of copies, advocating for animal rights.

Black Beauty is set in the same era that Sewell lived in: mid- to late-nineteenth-century England. Highlighting the various roles horses played during this time, Black Beauty serves as a saddle and carriage horse on a wealthy country estate, is rented out as a workhorse from a livery stable, pulls a cab, and navigates the crowded streets of London. These frequent changes in setting provide a comprehensive overview of British life during this period.

The first week of my life as a cab horse was very challenging.
During Sewell's lifetime, horses were not only the primary mode of transportation but were also gaining popularity among the middle class for leisure and exercise, and as symbols of status. The necessity for new riders to learn proper horse care and the increasing use of the harmful bearing rein, which often injured horses by forcing them to hold their heads unnaturally high, inspired Sewell to write Black Beauty. She believed that a creative approach would be the most effective way to raise awareness because it would attract a wide audience.

Animal Autobiography

Black Beauty asks the reader to accept a horse as the first-person narrator. This perspective quickly becomes convincing because Sewell so adeptly steps into the mind of a horse, presenting everything through the animal’s perceptions and observations. Sewell’s achievement with this novel lies in her ability to make readers feel they are getting the story “straight from the horse’s mouth.” Readers can vividly imagine what it is like to be a horse, from the sensation of a bit in the mouth to how humans appear to animals. The clever statement on the cover that the text was translated from the original equine helps set up the suspension of disbelief. This concept helps readers overlook the fact that horses do not speak “English” and generally do not talk at all.

The Use of the Novel Structure

Sewell’s book, with its suitable message for a didactic series of essays, and given her mother’s work in writing moral tales and verse for children, makes it somewhat surprising that Sewell chose the novel form. However, it is likely that Sewell had an artistic talent that needed the freedom and scope of a novel for full expression. The novel format allowed her to explore many more facets of the written word than an essay structure would have permitted.

Moreover, Sewell’s love for Romantic poetry is evident in the descriptive backgrounds she provides in her story. The opening paragraph is often cited in references to the novel because it paints an enchanting picture of the “pleasant meadow” at Farmer Grey’s, capturing the audience’s attention. Sewell makes the meadow appealing with details about “a pond of clear water,” surrounded by shady trees, rushes, and waterlilies. She also helps readers envision a ploughed field, a plantation of fir trees, and “a running brook overhung by a steep bank.” Later in the story, when Beauty stands severely injured next to Ruben Smith’s body, his anxiety and pain are soothed by the “calm, sweet April night,” complete with a nightingale’s song, “white clouds near the moon, and a brown owl that flitted over the hedge.”

The advice that Duchess gives to Black Beauty in the third chapter sets the plan for the novel. After introducing the main character, Beauty’s mother tells him there are “many kinds of men” and describes the different types a horse might encounter in his work. Throughout the book, Beauty meets all these different types of men. The plot revolves around these various encounters, their circumstances, and their outcomes.

Black Beauty's literary qualities are best appreciated when viewed within the context of the nineteenth-century tradition of improving books. This novel aligns closely with the moralistic ballads and literature of its era, particularly those that impart lessons on self-improvement and social justice. These stories are crafted in straightforward language to cater to their target readership—children and working-class adults with limited educational backgrounds. Sewell's mother, Mary, authored several popular improving books that Sewell read and helped edit. Among Mary Sewell's works, Black Beauty most closely mirrors Patience Hart's First Experience in Service.

Both Mary and Anna Sewell employ the literary technique of naming characters in ways that reflect their traits. In Mary's book about housemaids, the protagonist is Patience Hart, symbolizing a girl with a patient heart. Similarly, in Black Beauty, the groom Filcher pilfers Black Beauty's oats to feed his rabbits, Alfred Smirk is depicted as a lazy and arrogant fraud, and Seedy Sam is portrayed as an unfortunate cab driver who overworks his horses.

The book's conflicts and character arcs create a circular narrative structure. Black Beauty, who starts life in the countryside, experiences various adventures with different owners and companions, eventually returning to the countryside. During the nineteenth century, circular plots were believed to provide a sense of completeness and were considered the most effective way to illustrate character development throughout a story.

Beyond advocating for the humane treatment of animals, Black Beauty tackles several other social issues. The character Reuben Smith, through his alcoholism, ends up causing his own death, injuring Black Beauty, and driving his family into poverty, highlighting an ongoing societal problem. Captain's antiwar sentiments reflect a philosophy of nonviolence, closely aligned with Quaker beliefs.

While some issues may be less relevant today, they offer valuable insights into nineteenth-century British life. For instance, Sewell addresses the challenges of the seven-day work week. Though the necessity of a day of rest is no longer debated, this issue provides a striking contrast between life in Sewell's era and modern times. Likewise, traditional female roles such as mother, helpmate, and lady of the manor may not serve as role models for contemporary young women, but they illustrate the significant progress women have made over the past century.

1870s: The Temperance Movement is thriving in Britain and other nations. In 1874, the Woman’s Christian Temperance Movement is established in Cleveland, Ohio, and by 1883, it evolves into an international organization.

Today: The temperance movement itself is no longer prominent, but Alcoholics Anonymous is widely recognized for helping those with alcohol-related issues. Rehabilitation centers are plentiful to support individuals dealing with alcohol and drug addictions. Numerous laws address public intoxication and driving under the influence.

1870s: Most women work as homemakers. Anna Sewell lives her entire life in her parents’ home, while her mother gains fame as a bestselling author of children’s morality tales.

Today: Women are a significant presence in the workforce in Britain and other developed countries, and they hold a strong position as authors in the literary world. However, female Nobel and Pulitzer Prize winners in literature are still fewer than their male counterparts.

1870s: Bedford Park, located outside London, is emerging as the first modern suburb.

Today: Suburbs make up the largest parts of cities, often contributing to the decline of downtown and inner-city businesses and lifestyles.

1870s: The phonograph is invented, following closely on the heels of the telephone and telegraph.

Today: The phonograph has been succeeded by music tapes, compact discs, and digital music formats. Communication over long distances now relies on fiber optics, wireless devices, and satellites instead of the telegraph.

Twentieth Century Fox released the most famous movie adaptation of Black Beauty in 1946. Directed by Max Nosseck and featuring Mona Freeman, this version takes considerable liberties with Sewell's original story. It introduces a young female character not present in the book and portrays Merrylegs as Black Beauty's successor rather than his companion. Several lesser-known film adaptations have also been created over the years.

The ninth and most elaborate film production was a television miniseries aired in 1978. Directed by Daniel Haller, it starred Glynnis O'Connor, Eileen Brennan, William Devane, and Edward Albert.

The 1994 film adaptation of Black Beauty, produced by Warner Brothers, is now available in both DVD and VHS formats. The film has a runtime of 88 minutes and was produced by Robert Shapiro and Peter MacGregor Scott, with Caroline Thompson serving as both director and writer.

Black Beauty has also been adapted for radio and released as an audio book on records, cassettes, and CDs. One notable source is the unabridged Classics for Children of All Ages audio book, released in 2003.

Baker, Margaret J. Anna Sewell and "Black Beauty." London: George G. Harrap, 1956. This biographical novel, aimed at readers up to fourteen years old, is concise and simple to read. It highlights potential autobiographical sources for events in the novel and presents some conjectures as facts.

Bayly, Elizabeth Boyd. "Black Beauty and Its Author." In Buried Caesars: Essays in Literary Appreciation. Edited by Vincent Starrett. Chicago: Covici-McGee, 1923. This brief and informative biography of Anna Sewell and the history of Black Beauty is tailored for junior high school students. The book includes essays on authors whom Starrett believed were unfairly overlooked.

Bayly, Mrs. M. The Life and Letters of Mrs. Sewell. 2nd ed. London: James Nisbet, 1889. Written by a friend, this biography of Mary Sewell contains a chapter about Anna Sewell titled "My Nannie" (Mary's nickname for Anna). Although rare, this book is a significant early source for later biographies.

Chitty, Susan. The Woman Who Wrote Black Beauty: A Life of Anna Sewell. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1971. This is the most comprehensive and well-illustrated biography of Sewell and the history of Black Beauty. Geared towards young adult readers, it provides extensive information on both Sewell and her mother. Chitty notes that "the lives of the two women were so closely quilted together that it is impossible to tell the story of one without including that of the other."

Stibbs, Andrew. "Black Beauty: Tales My Mother Told Me." Children's Literature in Education 22 (Autumn 1976): 128-134. This article critiques Black Beauty for being dull and argues that it metaphorically promotes passivity and excessive obedience among young adults.

Sources

Bennett, Margaret, “Who Was Black Beauty?,” in Horsepower, August/September 1999.

Chitty, Susan, The Woman Who Wrote Black Beauty: A Life of Anna Sewell, Hodder & Stoughton, 1971.

Grealy, Lucy, “Afterword,” in Black Beauty, Signet Classics, 2002, pp. 217–23.

Hastings, Waller, Northern State University online, April 12, 2005, www.northern.edu/hastingw/sewell.htm.

Review of Black Beauty, in the Critic, Vol. XIII, No. 338, June 21, 1890, pp. 305–06.

Sayers, Frances Clarke, “Books That Enchant: What Makes a Classic?,” in Summoned by Books, edited by Marjeanne Jensen Blinn, Viking, 1965, pp. 152–61.

Sewell, Anna, Black Beauty, Aladdin Paperbacks, 2001.

Silvey, Anita, Children’s Books and Their Creators, Houghton, 1995, pp. 593–94.

Starrett, Vincent, “Black Beauty and Its Author,” in Buried Caesars: Essays in Literary Appreciation, Washington Book, 1923.

Further Reading

Altick, Richard Daniel, The Presence of the Present: Topics of the Day in the Victorian Novel, Ohio State University Press, 1991.

This companion to mid-nineteenth-century British novels offers historical context by discussing the people, events, and places of everyday Victorian life, explaining references that Victorians would have understood but modern readers might not.

Baker, Margaret J., Anna Sewell and Black Beauty, George Harrap, 1956.

This children's biography of Sewell also covers the era in which she lived.

Barrows, Susanna, and Robin Room, eds., Drinking: Behavior and Belief in Modern History, University of California Press, 1991.

This book compiles social science conference papers that explore drinking habits and societal responses to the effects of drinking, including the Temperance Movement, across different historical periods around the world.

Chitty, Susan, The Woman Who Wrote “Black Beauty,” Hodder & Stoughton, 1971.

This comprehensive biography of Sewell includes a family tree with detailed descriptions of her family, along with illustrations, and remains a key reference on her life.

Gavin, Adrienne E., Dark Horse: A Life of Anna Sewell, Sutton Publishing, 2004.

Dark Horse: A Life of Anna Sewell is a meticulously researched biography of Sewell that reviewers consistently describe as both engaging and easy to read.

Moss, Arthur W., The Valiant Crusade: The History of the R.S.P.C.A., Cassells, 1961.

Black Beauty significantly influenced efforts for animal welfare and is credited for its impact in this history of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.