the Nore, they were hesitant to accept. Richard Parker, an ex-midshipman, persuaded his fellow mutineers to hold out for more rather than immediately accepting the government's terms. This mutiny posed a significant threat to Britain for a time, as the Dutch, allies of France, almost managed to invade England while the mutineers remained inactive.

Addressing the members of the drumhead court, Captain Vere links the mutinies at Spithead and the Nore to the events in Billy Budd: "You know what sailors are. Will they not revert to the recent outbreak at the Nore? They know the well-founded alarm—the panic it struck throughout England. Your clement sentence they would account pusillanimous. They would think that we flinch, that we are afraid of them." In this tense atmosphere, with the potential for a power struggle between captains and their crews, Captain Vere must decide how to handle Billy's impulsive killing of his superior.

Mutiny on Board the Somers, 1842

At the end of chapter 21, Melville's narrator draws a parallel between Billy's case and an incident on the U.S. brig Somers in 1842. According to the narrator, this historical event on the Somers resulted in "the execution at sea of a midshipman and two sailors as mutineers designing the seizure of the brig." Although the events on the Somers and the Bellipotent are, he acknowledges, "different from" each other, the "urgency felt [by the officers deciding each case], well warranted or otherwise, was much the same."

When Herman Melville was a child, his favorite older cousin was Guert Gansevoort, who served as the first lieutenant on the Somers. During a voyage on the Somers, three young sailors were accused of plotting a mutiny. Gansevoort was among the officers consulted by the ship's captain, Alexander Slidell Mackenzie, as Mackenzie deliberated on the sailors' fate.

Without a trial or an opportunity for defense, the three sailors—one of whom, Philip Spencer, was the son of the U.S. secretary of war—were found guilty and hanged from the ship's yardarm. Subsequently, Mackenzie faced charges of murder.

Point of View

The first-person narrator refers to himself as "I" and briefly discusses his own past experiences. He remains unnamed and is not aboard the Bellipotent, yet he speaks with authority about the events that occur there. The narrator possesses a limited omniscient perspective, allowing him to observe almost all of the novel's actions, including some of the characters' thoughts. His admission of being unable to fully understand Claggart's character—"His portrait I essay, but shall never hit it"—is an example of his limited omniscience. This also enhances the novel's portrayal of Claggart's mysterious and alien nature.

The narrator recounts an experience from his youth, when "an honest scholar, my senior" spoke to him about a subtle aspect of human nature. Reflecting on his younger self, he says, "At the time, my inexperience was such that I did not quite see the drift of all this. It may be that I see it now." He shares this story to highlight his connection to and empathy for Billy Budd. The narrator's empathy shapes the narrative, as it allows him to comprehend Billy's innocence and tragic flaw.

Setting

The setting of Billy Budd—a British warship in the summer of 1797—is crucial to the plot and meaning of the novel. The story begins with the phrase, "In the time before steamships," situating the action in a period relative to the advancement of naval technology. This evokes an image of a ship with towering masts and expansive sails, which is the exact setting for the novel's events. A few paragraphs later, the narrator introduces Billy Budd and specifically identifies him as "a foretopman of the British fleet toward the close of the last decade of the eighteenth century."

The narrator's precise detailing of time and place establishes the setting for the upcoming events. In chapter 3, the historical context for the novel's action is introduced: just before the novel's fictional events, set in "the summer of 1797," actual mutinies occurred in the British navy during April and May of that same year. The mutinies at Spithead and the Nore continue to echo aboard the fictional Bellipotent, a ship whose name means "strong in war." The Bellipotent's crew and officers still feel the lingering tension from these significant mutinies. "Discontent foreran the Two Mutinies, and more or less it lurkingly survived them. Hence it was not unreasonable to apprehend some return of trouble." Melville uses this atmosphere of unease as the backdrop for his novel to evoke a sense of impending mutiny and diminishing trust between sailors and their commanders. He notes that "for a time [following the Two Mutinies], on more than one quarterdeck, anxiety did exist. At sea, precautionary vigilance was strained against relapse. At short notice an engagement might come on." An accusation against the innocent Billy Budd set in a different period, when the threat of mutiny is less imminent, might not end in tragedy. The narrator asserts that "the unhappy event which has been narrated could not have happened at a worse juncture."

The shipboard setting, common in many of Melville's works, serves as a microcosm of society, complete with hierarchies, laws, and a diverse array of personalities and backgrounds. Women are absent from this floating society, but historically, women were not part of the British navy during the novel's timeframe. The narrator comments that "the people of a great warship are...like villagers, taking microscopic note of every outward movement or non-movement going on." Small incidents, such as Billy spilling his soup in the mess or the afterguardsman speaking to Billy at night, take on greater significance because everyone notices and speculates about these moments, perhaps attributing more meaning to them than they warrant.

Foreshadowing

Throughout Billy Budd, Melville employs foreshadowing, hinting at future events, which lends the story a sense of inevitability. Billy is first described as "welkin eyed"—his eyes resemble the color of the sky—which links him to the heavens, indicating his purity but also suggesting that he will soon join the celestial realm. Early in the novel, Captain Graveling recounts an incident where Billy, in a fit of anger, strikes Red Whiskers. This act seems uncharacteristic for Billy but later echoes when Billy strikes and kills Claggart. When Billy witnesses another sailor being whipped for neglecting his duties, he is "horrified [and] resolved that never through remissness would he make himself liable to such a visitation or do or omit aught that might merit verbal reproof." Despite this resolve, Billy later faces a punishment far worse than whipping, and ironically, it results from circumstances largely beyond his control. Melville's foreshadowing in Billy Budd effectively enhances the novel's irony and underscores the tragic fate of its innocent protagonist.

The world of Billy Budd is vividly painted through its various settings, each embodying distinct themes of power, authority, and the conflict between natural rights and societal duty. Central to this narrative is the interplay between the ship HMS Bellipotent and the merchant vessel Rights of Man, representing contrasting ideals of authority and freedom. These settings create a backdrop against which personal and political tensions unfold, highlighting the sacrifices individuals make in the name of state security.

HMS Bellipotent

The seventy-four-gun warship HMS Bellipotent serves as a potent symbol of state authority and social order. A microcosm of society itself, the ship is a place where various social classes and types coexist under the leadership of Captain Vere. The ship's architecture mirrors this stratification, with different deck levels and compartments reflecting the hierarchical nature of its society. Billy Budd, a seaman impressed to serve on the Bellipotent, works on the foretop, a position that physically and symbolically elevates him, while his adversary, Claggart, operates on the lower gun decks, reinforcing his sinister role within the narrative. The ship is not just a vessel of war but a guardian of British society, charged with preserving order amidst the threats of rebellion and anarchy. Captain Vere’s cabin holds particular significance, acting as the site of Claggart’s death and Billy’s trial. This confined space becomes a court where Vere, embodying the ship’s authority, grapples with the weighty decision of Billy’s fate, reflecting broader societal tensions during a time of naval unrest.

Rights of Man

In stark contrast to the Bellipotent is the merchant ship Rights of Man, from which Billy is forcibly taken. Named after Thomas Paine’s seminal work on natural rights, the ship symbolizes individual freedom and autonomy. However, Billy’s transition from the Rights of Man to the Bellipotent marks his surrender of personal liberty to the demands of state duty. His life aboard the merchant vessel allowed for personal agency, as evidenced by his ability to defend himself without fear of reprisal. However, life on the warship dictates a strict adherence to authority, where actions are closely monitored, and derelictions of duty are swiftly punished. This shift underscores the theme of individual rights being subsumed by the needs of the state, reflecting the broader socio-political context of Melville’s narrative.

Upper Gun Deck

The upper gun deck of the Bellipotent becomes a stage for the juxtaposition of innocence and the machinations of war. Here, Billy Budd is held after his condemnation, surrounded by the tools of warfare—machines that serve interests beyond mere defense. The oil lamps illuminating this space, fueled by war contractors, raise questions about the true beneficiaries of conflict. Is Billy’s sacrifice a means to protect British citizens, or does it serve the profit-driven motives of those who supply the tools of war? This setting contrasts sharply with the foretop, a realm of relative freedom and natural light, where Billy once thrived, highlighting the loss of innocence and autonomy amidst the machinery of state power.

Mainyard

The mainyard from which Billy is executed serves as a chilling reminder of the power wielded by authority. Traditionally, executions take place from the foreyard, but Captain Vere’s decision to use the mainyard is a deliberate act to reinforce state power and deter potential mutiny. Through this public demonstration, any whispers of rebellion are swiftly silenced, and the ship’s routine is restored. This act encapsulates the harsh realities of naval life and the lengths to which authority will go to maintain order, underscoring the profound tension between duty and humanity.

1790s: In the late 18th century, British naval warships are powered by sails. Seventy-four gun ships, known for their speed and maneuverability, are the most prevalent. Steam power is beginning to be explored as an alternative means of ship propulsion.

1890s: The United States starts constructing a "new navy" in the 1880s, comprising ironclad steam-powered ships equipped with various weapons.

1924: The Five-Power Naval Limitation Treaty, signed in 1922, prevents Allied nations from building new battleships until 1931 and mandates the destruction of most outdated battleships. During this time, naval aircraft technology is also being developed.

Today: Almost half of the U.S. Navy's warships are powered by nuclear reactors, allowing them to travel quickly without needing fuel oil.

1790s: During the American Revolution, capital punishment in America faces criticism as a deplorable practice from the era of King George. By 1796, New York, Melville's home state, reduces the number of crimes punishable by death from thirteen to two—murder and treason.

1890s: In 1890, the New York Assembly passes a bill to abolish capital punishment, but the State Senate rejects it. In August 1890, William Kemmler becomes the first person executed by electrocution, as hanging is considered too barbaric.

1924: The notorious Leopold and Loeb case, where teenagers Nathan Leopold and Richard Loeb are tried for the brutal murder of fourteen-year-old Richard Franks, stirs public demand for the death penalty. However, the judge accepts attorney Clarence Darrow's argument that Leopold and Loeb are insane and sentences them to life imprisonment with hard labor instead.

Today: The U.S. Supreme Court abolished capital punishment in 1972 with Furman v. Georgia. However, subsequent rulings have altered various aspects of the death penalty, and executions continue. By 1991, about 2,500 inmates are on death row. At the turn of the century, debates focus on whether lethal injection is more humane than the electric chair.

1790s: In a nation of immigrants, white European settlers view Native Americans as "the other" and obstacles to their territorial claims. In the South, African slaves are treated as property by their white owners.

1890s: American nativists grow anxious about the massive influx of immigrants. In 1880, the U.S. Congress passes the Chinese Exclusion Act, banning Chinese laborers from entering the United States for ten years. In 1892, Congress renews the act for another decade.

1924: Reflecting the anti-foreigner sentiment after World War I, the Immigration Act of 1924 sets an annual quota for immigration into the United States.

Today: "Multiculturalism," a movement promoting respect for different cultures, is taught in American schools and influences popular culture.

Billy Budd was adapted into a film in 1962 by Peter Ustinov, who not only directed and produced the film but also starred as Captain Vere. Terence Stamp, playing Billy, received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. The cast also includes Robert Ryan and David McCallum. This black-and-white film is available on VHS.

In 1951, Benjamin Britten transformed Billy Budd into a four-act opera, with a libretto by E. M. Forster and Eric Crozier. A video recording of the opera, released in 1988, features Thomas Allen as Billy. The production includes the English National Opera Orchestra and Chorus, conducted by David Atherton and directed by Tim Albery.

Billy Budd is also available as an audiobook on two audiocassettes, narrated by Simon Jones. These cassettes were released by Durkin Hayes Audio in 1987.

In 1951, Louis O. Coxe and Robert Chapman published Billy Budd, A Play in Three Acts through Princeton University Press.

A documentary titled The Curse of the Somers: Billy Budd's Ghost Ship (1996) explores the historical event that inspired Billy Budd. Narrated by Peter Coyote, this award-winning film delves into the controversial Somers Mutiny Affair, which Melville references in Billy Budd. The incident led to the execution of midshipman Philip Spencer and the court-martial of Captain Alexander Slidell Mackenzie. The documentary also includes underwater footage of the Somers wreck.

Allen, Gay Wilson. Melville and His World. New York: Viking Press, 1971.

Anderson, Charles. Melville in the South Seas. New York: Columbia University Press, 1939.

Bercaw, Mary Kay. Melville’s Sources. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1987.

“Billy Budd.” In The Oxford Companion to English Literature. 5th ed., edited by Margaret Drabble. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.

Bloom, Harold, ed. Herman Melville. New York: Chelsea House, 1986.

Dillingham, William B. Melville’s Later Novels. Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1986.

Franklin, H. Bruce. The Wake of the Gods: Melville’s Mythology. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1963.

Hayford, Harrison, and Merton M. Sealts, Jr., eds., preface by Herman Melville. Billy Budd, Sailor. An Inside Narrative. University of Chicago, 1962, pp. v-vii.

Hillway, Tyrus. Herman Melville. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1963.

Howe, Susan. The Birthmark: Unsettling the Wilderness in American Literary History. Wesleyan University Press, 1993.

Matthiessen, F. O. "Billy Budd, Foretopman," in his American Renaissance: Art and Experience in the Age of Emerson and Whitman. Oxford University Press, 1941.

Melville, Herman. Billy Budd, Sailor, edited by Harrison Hayford and Merton S. Sealts, Jr. University of Chicago, 1962.

"Herman Melville's obituary." New York Times, October 2, 1891.

Mumford, Lewis. "Melville's Final Affirmation," in his Herman Melville. Harcourt, Brace, 1929, pp. 353-54.

Melville, Herman. Billy Budd and Other Tales (based on the text edited by F. Barron Freeman and corrected by Elizabeth Treeman c. 1948, 1956). Signet Classic edition. New York: American Library, 1979.

“Melville, Herman.” In Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1987.

Miller, James E., Jr. A Reader’s Guide to Herman Melville. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy, 1962.

Pullin, Faith, ed. New Perspectives on Melville. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1978.

Reese, William S. "Collecting Herman Melville," The Gazette of the Groher Club, http://www.reeseco.com/papers/melville.htm.

Russell, W. Clark. "A Claim for American Literature," in North American Review, February, 1892.

Shaw, Peter. "The Fate of A Story," American Scholar, Vol. 62, No. 4, p. 591.

Weaver, Raymond M. Herman Melville: Mariner and Mystic. George H. Doran, 1921.

Weaver, Raymond, ed. Shorter Novels of Herman Melville. Horace Liveright, 1928.

For Further Study:

Coffler, Gail. "Classical Iconography in the Aesthetics of Billy Budd, Sailor," in Savage Eye: Melville and the Visual Arts, edited by Christopher Sten. Kent State University Press, 1991, pp. 257-76.
Coffler examines Melville's deep-rooted fascination with ancient Greek and Roman mythology, law, and art. The character Billy Budd embodies a blend of Greek elegance and Roman resilience.

Cook, Mervyn, and Philip Reed, eds. Benjamin Britten. Billy Budd, Cambridge Opera Handbooks. Cambridge University Press, 1993.
This book provides a summary of Britten's opera based on Melville's novel. It includes a detailed explanation of the opera's literary origins, a discussion of both the librettist's and composer's contributions, and an analysis of the music's tonal symbolism.

Davis, Clark. After the Whale: Melville in the Wake of Moby-Dick. University of Alabama Press, 1995.
This comprehensive study focuses on Melville's lesser-known works written after Moby-Dick. The book was awarded the 1993 Elizabeth Agee Prize in American Literature.

Kieran Dolin, "Power, Chance and the Rule of Law—Billy Budd, Sailor" in Fiction and the Law: Legal Discourse in Victorian and Modernist Literature, Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 121-44.
Explores Billy Budd as an early examination of the intersection between law and literature. Dolin examines how "natural law," with its inherent ambiguities, was being progressively supplanted by "legal positivism," the belief that law could be a precise science. Dolin contends that this intellectual transition is depicted negatively in Melville's novel.

Lawrence Douglas, "Discursive Limits: Narrative and Judgement in Billy Budd," Mosaic, Vol. 27, No. 4, December 1994, pp. 141-160.
Douglas argues that Melville's novel represents one of the earliest conversations between law and literature. It is valuable for students in both fields as it delves into the crises involved in the act and art of judgment.

James Dugan, The Great Mutiny, Putnam's, 1965.
This book provides a detailed account of the 1797 mutinies in the British Royal Navy at Spithead and the Nore, as well as the events leading up to these revolts.

H Bruce Franklin, "Billy Budd and Capital Punishment: A Tale of Three Centuries," American Literature, June 1997, pp. 337-59.
This article places the novel within the context of the contemporary (1880s) debate on capital punishment, a controversy specific to New York, where Melville resided. The debate focused on which crimes, if any, should be punishable by death and the exceptions that should be made during wartime.

Leonard F. Guttridge, Mutiny: A History of Naval Insurrection, United States Naval Institute, 1992.
Starting with the notorious mutiny on the Bounty in 1787, this book chronicles the history of mutinies in the U.S. Navy and other navies worldwide. Guttridge debunks several myths about mutiny and demonstrates how these uprisings often stemmed from individual reactions to specific historical circumstances.

Myra Jehlen, editor, Herman Melville: A Collection of Critical Essays, Prentice Hall, 1994.
This outstanding critical anthology compiles essays written in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s on all of Melville's works.

Barbara Johnson, "Melville's Fist: The Execution of 'Billy Budd,'" Studies in Romanticism, Winter 1979, pp. 567-99.
Arguably the most thorough analysis of both the criticism preceding 1979 and the novel's ambiguities.

Charles Larson, "Melville's Marvell and Vere's Fairfax," ESQ, Vol. 38, No. 1, 1992, pp. 59-70.
Criticism of the novel frequently considers the influence of the American and French Revolutions. Larson posits that the English Civil War of the mid-seventeenth century should also be acknowledged due to the novel's reference to Andrew Marvell's Civil War poem "Upon Appleton House," dedicated to Puritan army commander Lord Thomas Fairfax—an "ancestor" of Melville's Captain Vere.

Robert Milder, Critical Essays on Melville's Billy Budd, Sailor, G.K. Hall, 1989.
A collection of critical essays on Melville's works, spanning his entire career, with an introduction by editor Milder.

Susan Mizruchi, "Cataloging the Creatures of the Deep: 'Billy Budd, Sailor' and the Rise of Sociology," Boundary 2, Spring, 1990, pp. 272-304.
Mizruchi interprets Billy Budd as a critique of the burgeoning field of sociology, suggesting that sociologists claim to be expert observers while attempting to homogenize individual differences.

Kathy J. Phillips, "Billy Budd as Anti-Homophobic Text," College English, December, 1994, pp. 896-910.
Phillips reflects on her experience teaching Billy Budd in a college setting. She notes that the class considers the novel's portrayal of homosexuality, especially in light of Billy's restricted speech, and discusses how American society has historically responded to "other" sexualities with violence rather than dialogue.

Laune Robertson-Lorant, Melville: A Biography, University of Massachusetts Press, 1998.
This biography of Melville utilizes research into Melville family letters, explores his friendship with Hawthorne, examines his sexuality, and provides an in-depth analysis of his writings along with the critical responses to his work.

Nancy Ruttenburg, "Melville's Anxiety of Innocence: The Handsome Sailor," in Democratic Personality Popular Voice and the Trial of American Authorship, Stanford University Press, 1998, pp 344-78.
Ruttenburg argues that in the context of American literature and history before 1891, the character of Billy Budd epitomizes the yearning for an ideal figure who is both innocent and beautiful. She suggests that Emerson and Whitman celebrated this ideal, whereas Melville rejects it as an idealized American archetype.

Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, "Billy Budd. After the Homosexual," in Epistemology of the Closet, University of California Press, 1990, pp. 92-130.
Sedgwick's essay portrays John Claggart as a homosexual and explores the significance of his death. It also examines how male desire and intimacy shape the relationships among the characters. Sedgwick questions whether male desire stabilizes or disrupts social order, challenging traditional binary structures between gay and straight.

William T. Stafford, editor, Melville's Billy Budd and the Critics, second edition, Wadsworth, 1968.
This comprehensive anthology of essays is organized by themes and critical debates, providing a valuable resource for understanding the various interpretations of Billy Budd.

Christopher Sten, "Vere's Use of the 'Forms'' Means and Ends in Billy Budd," American Literature, March, 1975, pp 37-51.
Sten compares Captain Vere's orchestration of Billy's trial and execution to Melville's creation of Vere, analyzing the motivations behind each man's actions.

Brook Thomas, "Billy Budd and the Judgement of Silence,"
Bucknell Review, Vol. 27, 1983, pp 51-78.
Thomas critiques Barbara Johnson's deconstruction of Billy Budd, questioning the political implications of her analysis.

Howard P. Vincent, editor, Twentieth Century Interpretations of Billy Budd, Prentice-Hall, 1971.
Vincent's collection, divided into "Interpretations" and "View Points," offers a range of responses to Melville and his final novel but is considered less useful than the compilations by Milder, Stafford, or Jehlen.