Herman Melville's Billy Budd, Foretopman has sparked extensive critical discussion since its posthumous discovery, despite Melville's faded reputation at the time of his death. The novel, published in various forms since its manuscript was found, has been subject to multiple interpretations, reflecting shifting societal values and literary trends. This exploration of Melville's work reveals a narrative rich in symbolism and moral inquiry, inviting readers to ponder the complex interplay between innocence, evil, and authority.

Unfinished Masterpiece

Melville began writing Billy Budd in 1886 and left it incomplete at his death in 1891. The novel remained unpublished until the 1920s, subsequently undergoing several edits and iterations, the most notable being the Hayford-Sealts text published in 1962. This version distinguished itself from its 1924 and 1948 predecessors by altering key elements, such as the ship's name from Indomitable to Bellipotent, underscoring themes of war and its impact on individuals.

Symbolic Characters and Themes

Melville employs symbolic characterization to convey profound moral and philosophical insights. Billy Budd himself serves a dual symbolic role: a Christ figure and the archetype of innocent, Adamic man. His innocence and Christ-like qualities are illuminated through interactions with other characters and his ultimate fate, reflecting themes of sacrifice and moral purity.

Claggart, the master-at-arms who harbors an unprovoked enmity towards Billy, embodies innate evil. His character is a stark contrast to Billy's innocence, illustrating the inexplicable nature of hatred and malevolence. Melville describes Claggart's wickedness as inherent and immutable, emphasizing the tragic inevitability of his destructive path.

Captain Vere, juxtaposed between Billy and Claggart, represents the rational, duty-bound authority. Though he embodies principles and balance, his decision to uphold naval law—even at the expense of executing innocent Billy—highlights the harsh realities of leadership during wartime and the sacrifices made for societal order.

Moral Symbolism and the Human Condition

Melville's novella is steeped in moral symbolism, exploring the coexistence of good and evil within the human condition. Billy Budd's innocence and Christ-like attributes are juxtaposed with his human imperfections, notably his speech impediment, which hearkens back to the biblical Adam's fallibility. This thematic thread portrays innocence as both a virtue and a vulnerability, ultimately leading to Billy's demise.

Similarly, Claggart's inherent malice serves as a counterpoint to Billy's purity, embodying the mysterious and destructive nature of evil. Melville suggests that Claggart's hatred is an innate part of his character, not a product of environment or upbringing, underscoring the complexity and unpredictability of human nature.

Captain Vere's Dilemma

Captain Vere's portrayal as a principled, intellectual leader further complicates the moral landscape of Billy Budd. His difficult decision to execute Billy, despite recognizing his innocence, is portrayed as a necessary measure to maintain order and discipline within the navy. This narrative choice reflects Melville's exploration of the moral sacrifices demanded by leadership and governance, particularly in times of conflict.

Vere's internal conflicts and ultimate resolve are emblematic of the burdens borne by those in positions of authority. His emotional response to Billy's execution, juxtaposed with his stoic adherence to duty, encapsulates the tension between compassion and responsibility, a recurrent theme in the novel.

Publication and Critical Reception

After its rediscovery, Billy Budd faced varied interpretations and editorial challenges, reflecting the complexity and depth of Melville's writing. The initial hesitation to embrace the novel's significance transformed into a broader appreciation during the "Melville revival" of the early 20th century, a movement spurred by changing societal attitudes and renewed interest in Melville's work.

Critics such as Raymond Weaver and Lewis Mumford offered differing views on the novel's merits and meanings. Weaver's early dismissal of Billy Budd as lacking the vibrancy of...