available ship heading south.

By act 3, the farm has fallen into disastrous ruin. In the five years that have elapsed since act 2, Mary and Robert’s mother have died, and Robert is failing fast with tuberculosis. Robert attempts to be hopeful, but in vain. When Andrew returns, once again penniless due to illegitimate trading, he brings a doctor to treat his brother, but it is too late. At the end of the play, Robert Mayo, a broken man who can never realize his dream, drags himself one last time to the hilltop so he can at least see the beckoning horizon and imagine the promised adventures that he was unable to experience.

The three-act play follows a traditional climactic play structure with each of the three acts separated into two scenes: one exterior and one interior. Although O’Neill received criticism for this device, his basic aim was to illustrate the two opposing forces at work on Robert Mayo. The interior scenes provide visual reinforcement of deterioration and decay manifested by Robert’s inability to orchestrate successfully the management of the farm. The main reason the critics faulted the scenic changes was that they interrupted the flow of the dramatic action and, according to American drama critic Alexander Woollcott, exterior scenes are not always as visually stimulating in practice as they are in the mind of the playwright. Eugene O’Neill, much like Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller, wrote stage directions that exhaustively describe the environment in which his dramas should be set. Although a lofty idea to juxtapose the beauty and illusiveness of the “horizon” with the eventual decay of the interior farmstead, the playwright’s vision was not realized at the Morosco Theatre.

Another difficulty with the structure of the play is that the endings of acts 1 and 2 seem too abrupt, with little foreshadowing of potential action in the next act, as if O’Neill has not quite escaped the format of the one-act. This difficulty also adds to the interruption of dramatic flow, especially with the extended periods of time lapsing between acts. In addition, though the audience is watching the action unfold over eight years, some critics argue that the deterioration of both Mary’s and Robert’s health in that amount of time is unrealistic.

Equally impractical is the suggested age of the daughter, Mary, if one considers the demands of both stage time and dialogue that O’Neill affords to the role in act 2. A role played by an actor near the age of two would be quite a stretch. Hence, believability for the character would surely be compromised with an older child delivering the dialogue as written.

When first produced, the play was labeled a tragedy by critics. It certainly has tragic elements, but it does not hold to classical standards of tragedy for the simple reason that neither Robert nor his brother battles against a fate they cannot control. On the contrary, at the opening of the play they are both embracing their fate, ready to follow their “true nature.” At that initial point of stasis in the play, they each make decisions that irrevocably shape the rest of their lives.

Although O’Neill wrote the tragic play Beyond the Horizon in 1918, it includes no reference to World War I, which ended that same year. This could be because O’Neill intended the story to be set in the years before the war began. Alternatively, it might be that the play already contains sufficient tragedy without mentioning the war. Regardless, the war significantly impacted farmers and merchant seamen, two occupations represented in the play by the Mayo brothers.

Even before the United States officially entered the war in 1917, American farms were supplying food to the Allied forces. These exports, along with munitions shipments, supported the war effort and led to increased economic prosperity in the United States during the early years of the conflict. As J. M. Roberts notes in his book Twentieth Century: The History of the World, 1901 to 2000: “The Allies were the main customers of American industry and farmers; Allied spending fueled an economic boom in the United States.” However, the American merchant ships delivering these goods faced growing threats from German submarines. In January 1917, Germany announced it would sink any ship attempting to deliver supplies to the Allies, including neutral American vessels. By March, German submarines had sunk several American merchant ships, sparking a national movement that pushed for the United States to join the war. America declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917.

While the United States’ neutral stance had initially spurred an economic boom through increased production of food and other supplies for the Allies, America’s entry into the war jeopardized this production. In May 1917, President Wilson signed the Selective Service Act, requiring many young men to register for military service. This conscription drafted many farmers and farm workers, creating labor shortages that threatened to reduce the nation’s production capacity. The loss of workers on farms and in factories risked undermining America’s ability to maintain the high production levels it had enjoyed since the war's beginning. To standardize production and prevent supplies from being secretly funneled to German forces, Wilson announced in July that he was taking official control over the nation’s essential supplies. This included regulating the pricing and transportation of food and other critical war materials. Wheat prices were fixed, and the railroads, as well as some merchant ships, were requisitioned for government use.

Simultaneously, a significant private initiative emerged to support farmers in maintaining their high production levels. In October 1917, Henry Ford, renowned for his revolutionary mass-produced Model T automobile (introduced in 1908), began manufacturing the world’s first mass-produced tractors. For Ford, who grew up on a farm and was an advocate for farmers, this marked the fulfillment of a long-held dream. As Robert Lacey mentions in his book, Ford: The Men and the Machine: "Almost as soon as the Ford Motor Company started making money, Henry Ford had started trying to develop a tractor." Due to the lack of interest from the Ford Motor Company executives in this agricultural endeavor, Ford established a new company in 1916, Henry Ford & Son, to produce his "Fordson" tractors. Although tractors had been available for some time, they were typically too heavy and costly for most farms. The gasoline-engine Fordson tractor, however, was lighter and significantly cheaper than other tractors. Fordsons were mass-produced using the same type of assembly line Ford implemented in 1913 for the Model Ts, making them a practical option for farmers seeking to replace farmhands who had gone to fight in the war.

By the end of the war, American farms remained a vital industry, increasingly supported by the use of tractors. Tractors brought transformative power to farming, replacing horses as the primary method for plowing fields. As Roberts notes, "power did more than perform traditional tasks more efficiently: it broke in new land." With their enhanced power, tractors enabled farmers to plow tough land that had previously been unsuitable for crops. This mechanization helped farmers boost their crop yields, which was critical in meeting the heightened food demands during the final months of the war. Even after the war concluded in November 1918, the increased crop yields were put to good use, as the United States committed to aiding Europe in combating food shortages, where resources had been severely depleted during the conflict.

Tragedy
O’Neill’s Beyond the Horizon marked a significant shift from the typical melodramatic plays of its era. The play introduced genuine tragedy, which became a defining feature of many American dramas in the twentieth century. The concept of tragedy has a rich literary heritage, tracing back to ancient Greek plays where tragic events stemmed from a character flaw or defect. While the definitions and applications of tragedy have evolved, most tragedies still revolve around a poor decision made by one or more characters. In O’Neill’s play, these choices are driven by love. Robert’s love for Ruth compels him to make a hasty yet crucial life choice, as the stage directions describe: ‘‘ROBERT (face to face with a definite, final decision, betrays the conflict going on within him): ‘But—Ruth—I—Uncle Dick—.’’’ Ruth’s persistence and eventual breakdown into tears ultimately sway his decision: ‘‘ROBERT (conquered by this appeal—an irrevocable decision in his voice): ‘I won’t go, Ruth. I promise you.’’’

Robert’s choice prompts Andy to make his own tragic decision to go to sea. Andy declares, ‘‘You’ve made your decision, Rob, and now I’ve made mine.’’ His decision is also motivated by love, as he cannot bear to see Ruth with another man, especially his brother: ‘‘I’ve got to get away and try to forget, if I can.’’ Mr. Mayo reveals Andy’s choice as a rash attempt to escape heartache, ‘‘You’re runnin’ away ‘cause you’re put out and riled ‘cause your own brother’s got Ruth ‘stead o’ you.’’ These tragic decisions lead to a series of unfortunate events, resulting in the deaths of several characters. James dies while Andy is at sea, and Mrs. Mayo believes his death was caused by his inability to publicly forgive Andy: ‘‘It was that brought on his death—breaking his heart just on account of his stubborn pride.’’ Mrs. Mayo is further affected by her husband’s death, the decline of the farm, and her son’s unhappy marriage, as the stage directions note: ‘‘MRS. MAYO’S face has lost all character, disintegrated, become a weak mask wearing a helpless, doleful expression of being constantly on the verge of comfortless tears.’’ Additionally, Mary suffers from chronic illness. Mrs. Atkins comments, ‘‘She gets it right from her Pa—being sickly all the time. . . . It was a crazy mistake for them two to get married.’’ Ultimately, Mary also dies, and in the end, Robert succumbs to his fate, both tragic outcomes resulting from the decisions made by Robert and Andy to defy their true selves.

Irony
The play is steeped in dramatic irony, creating a sense among the audience that one outcome is inevitable, only for the opposite to occur. By the conclusion, both the audience and the characters are confronted with the harsh irony of the protagonists' squandered lives. Robert, Ruth, and Andy each end up with precisely what they were trying to avoid. Andy abandons his farming aspirations, believing it would be unbearable to watch his brother and Ruth together. Ruth desired a blissful marriage with a man she truly loved, but as she confesses to Andy towards the end, "You see I’d found out I’d made a mistake about Rob soon after we were married—when it was too late." Andy flees out of jealousy over Ruth and Robert's relationship, which ironically falls apart soon after his departure, as Ruth realizes Andy is her true love. Meanwhile, Robert remains on the farm, convinced he will find happiness with Ruth, only to encounter misery and death, forever longing for the seafaring life Andy detests.

To make matters worse, Ruth’s failed marriage has left her so emotionally drained that she confesses to Robert, "I don’t love anyone." She has lost her capacity to love. The tragic irony intensifies when Robert, on his deathbed, urges Ruth and Andy to marry to honor his last wish. Andy, out of a sense of duty to his brother, agrees to try: "We must try to help each other—and—in time—we’ll come to know what’s right." However, the damage is beyond repair. The circumstances have drastically changed since Andy left eight years prior, and even if they do marry as Andy once hoped, nothing will ever be the same.

Mood
O’Neill’s play employs various staging techniques designed to evoke a specific mood in the audience. One particularly effective method is the change in seasons. At the play's onset, the stage directions describe: "The hushed twilight of a day in May is just beginning." This spring setting in the first act transitions to "a hot, sunbaked day in mid-summer" in the second act. Finally, in the last act, it is "a day toward the end of October." This progression from spring—symbolizing youth and hope—to late autumn—a period of fading life before the onset of winter—mirrors the play's tragic events and deepens the somber mood.

Late 1910s–Late 1920s: Due to advancements in agricultural technology, numerous farm workers lose their jobs, and farms generate crop surpluses. These surpluses result in lower crop prices, causing financial difficulties for many farms. Displaced workers and struggling farmers migrate to overcrowded cities in search of better opportunities.

Today: Most people now reside in cities or the sprawling suburban areas surrounding them. Farming has become one of the least favored professions, with many tasks once done by farmers now automated by machines.

Late 1910s–Late 1920s: After World War I, the New York Stock Exchange sees a boom in speculative investing by everyday Americans, leading to inflated stock prices and newfound wealth for many. A significant number of people borrow money on margin, planning to repay with their stock profits. When the stock market crashes in 1929, many stocks become worthless, leaving investors unable to settle their debts. This financial catastrophe triggers the Great Depression.

Today: The United States faces an economic downturn following the collapse of overvalued technology stocks, many linked to the rise of Internet companies.

Late 1910s–Late 1920s: The United States constructs the Panama Canal, a crucial waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in Central America, and takes full ownership and responsibility for it. Panama rapidly emerges as an international hub for shipping and trade.

Today: After nearly a century of American control, the Panama Canal is now entirely under Panamanian jurisdiction, following treaties from the 1970s between the two countries. For the first time in its history as an independent nation, Panama has full control over all its territory.

Beyond the Horizon was transformed into a television movie by the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in 1975. Directed by Rick Hauser and Michael Kahn IV, the film stars Richard Backus as Robert Mayo and Maria Tucci as Ruth Atkins. This adaptation can be found on video through the Broadway Theatre Archive.

Sources
Ben-Zvi, Linda, “Freedom and Fixity in the Plays of Eugene O’Neill,” in The Critical Response to Eugene O’Neill, edited by John H. Houchin, Greenwood Press, 1993, p. 275. Originally published in Modern Drama Vol. 30, March 1988, pp. 16-27.

Carpenter, Frederic I., Eugene O’Neill, Twayne Publishers, 1979, p. 85.

Floyd, Virginia, The Plays of Eugene O’Neill: A New Assessment, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1985, p. 143.

Fulton, A. R., Drama and Theatre Illustrated by Seven Modern Plays, Henry Holt and Company, 1946, p. 119.

Lacey, Robert, Ford: The Men and the Machine, Ballantine Books, 1993, pp. 103, 181.

O’Neill, Eugene, Beyond the Horizon, in Four Plays by Eugene O’Neill, Signet Classic, 1998, pp. 5-12, 16-18, 20, 26, 31-32, 34-35, 40, 42-43, 47, 50, 52-54, 61, 63, 66-68, 72, 79, 80, 84, 90, 93, 95-96, 99, 101, 103, 105, 107-08.

Roberts, J. M., Twentieth Century: The History of the World, 1901 to 2000, Penguin Books, 1999, pp. 119, 280.

Towse, J. Rankin, Review of Beyond the Horizon, in The Critical Response to Eugene O’Neill, edited by John H. Houchin, Greenwood Press, 1993, pp. 15-16. Originally published in New York Post, February 4, 1920.

Trilling, Lionel, “Eugene O’Neill,” in The Critical Response to Eugene O’Neill, edited by John H. Houchin, Greenwood Press, 1993, p. 165. Originally published in New Republic, September 23, 1936.

Wainscott, Ronald H., Staging O’Neill: The Experimental Years, 1920-1934, Yale University Press, 1988, pp. 18, 20-21.

Wiksander, Ronald H., “O’Neill and the Cult of Sincerity,” in The Cambridge Companion to Eugene O’Neill, edited by Michael Manheim, Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 219.

Further Reading
Black, Stephen A., Eugene O’Neill: Beyond Mourning and Tragedy, Yale University Press, 2002. Black, an English professor and psychoanalyst, uses both disciplines in this meticulously researched biography of O’Neill. The playwright’s life, marked by his mother’s morphine addiction stemming from his birth, was filled with numerous tragedies, including alcoholism, family conflicts, multiple unhappy marriages, many deaths, and estrangement from his children.

Brietzke, Zander, The Aesthetics of Failure: Dynamic Structure in the Plays of Eugene O’Neill, McFarland & Company, 2001. While some of O’Neill’s plays are celebrated as masterpieces, critics have pointed out the lack of quality in many of his other works. Brietzke explores this aspect in light of O’Neill’s own belief that tragedy necessitates failure. The book includes a chronological list of O’Neill’s plays, along with production history, character details, and plot summaries.

Finch, Christopher, In the Market: The Illustrated History of Financial Markets, Abbeville Press, Inc., 2001. In Beyond the Horizon, Andy ventures into the commodities market, one of humanity’s latest trading arenas. Finch’s captivating book chronicles the history of financial markets from 3500 B.C. to the present. It features a timeline of significant events, a glossary of financial terms, and over one hundred brief biographies of notable figures in the financial world.

Liu, Hai-Ping, and Lowell Swortzell, eds., Eugene O’Neill in China: An International Centenary Celebration, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1992. During the centennial of O’Neill’s birth, scholars from across the globe convened in China to share their latest research. This book compiles several noteworthy papers presented at the event. Topics covered include the impact of Taoism on O’Neill’s artistry, comparisons between O’Neill’s work and that of other dramatists, his portrayal of female characters, and analyses of international stagings of his plays.

Shafer, Yvonne, ed., Performing O’Neill: Conversations with Actors and Directors, Palgrave, 2000. In this volume, Shafer, a prominent O’Neill scholar, interviews eleven renowned actors and directors who have brought O’Neill’s plays to life over the past century. These interviews delve into the challenges faced in interpreting O’Neill’s raw depictions of life on stage. The distinguished list of interviewees includes James Earl Jones, Jason Robards, Theresa Wright, Theodore Mann, and Jane Alexander.

Shaughnessy, Edward L., Down the Nights and Down the Days: Eugene O’Neill’s Catholic Sensibility, University of Notre Dame Press, 2000. Despite O’Neill’s rejection of his Catholic faith during his teenage years, many critics have overlooked this aspect of his life as an influence on his work. Shaughnessy, however, contends that O’Neill’s Irish-Catholic background shaped the moral dimensions of his plays and explores this argument through discussions of several of O’Neill’s works.

Siebold, Thomas, ed., Readings on Eugene O’Neill, Greenhaven Press, 1998. This diverse and accessible collection of criticism on O’Neill includes contributions from literary critics, psychologists, playwrights, and reviewers. The book offers a wide-ranging perspective on O’Neill’s work without becoming mired in specific critical disputes.