Historical Context
During the 1950s, Britain experienced a poetic revival, ignited by those eager to propel poetry forward or, at the very least, steer it away from what they feared it was becoming. A notable literary phenomenon from this era, firmly etched into England's literary tapestry, was a cohort of writers known as The Movement. This collective, featuring the likes of Philip Larkin, Kingsley Amis, John Wain, Thom Gunn, D. J. Enright, Donald Davie, John Holloway, Elizabeth Jennings, and Robert Conquest among others, championed writing that resonated with the reality of genuine people and events. Their mission was to steer British poetry back to the disciplined rhythms of versification, distancing it from the perceived laxity of free verse and other nascent forms. They stood in opposition not only to the trends in American poetry but also to the melodrama and hysteria that they felt characterized much of the poetry emerging from World War II. Largely anti-romantic, critics sometimes viewed them as traditionalists resistant to innovation, preferring to "forget" the war and its tumult. Their works were encapsulated in Conquest's anthologies, New Lines and New Lines 2, published in 1956 and 1963, respectively.
Despite this, some poets disavowed the existence of such a group, dismissing it as a convenient construct of literary critics eager to categorize a multitude of poetic styles. In a conversation with Jhan Hochman for The Portland Review, Thom Gunn remarked, "That kind of thing [artistic groupings] is really a wonderful example of the b—s— of literary categories. It strikes me as a more meaningless category than most, ‘The Movement.’” Allegedly, eight individuals comprised The Movement, yet the stylistic approach they embraced was not exclusive to them but was widespread among poets of the time.”
The Rise of The Group
Simultaneously, another faction emerged, intriguingly dubbed The Group, which included literary figures such as Ted Hughes, Peter Redgrove, and MacBeth. Standing in stark contrast to The Movement, The Group championed innovation and exploration of new poetic forms and expressions, driven as much by critics as by poets themselves. Their gatherings bore an air of the underground; anyone could potentially receive an invitation to their meetings, which often unfolded in the manner of workshops where poems were scrutinized through the lens of practical criticism.
Despite his aversion to labels, MacBeth participated in The Group's meetings, drawn to their ambition to elevate poetry as an art form both spoken and written. A passionate performer of his own work, MacBeth embraced the notion of poetry as a performative art. He harbored a disdain for The Movement, particularly due to its members' solemn approach to poetry. As cited in the Dictionary of Literary Biography, Lawrence R. Ries quotes MacBeth: “The Movement weren’t prepared to churn out a bad poem about the most important experience of their lives. A willingness to do that seems to me the first essential of an important poet.” His playful stylistic experimentation and readiness to craft and publish numerous subpar poems highlighted his belief in poetry as an evolving process rather than a completed product.
Literary Style
"Bedtime Story," a whimsical take on a classic fairytale, unfolds through thirteen expressive quatrains. These verses cleverly critique European perspectives on colonialism while reflecting on humanity's ties with nature.
Parody, as a literary device, often mimics the elements of renowned works or genres, playfully addressing themes considered less grandiose than the originals. In "Bedtime Story," MacBeth nods to the traditional fable format with the phrase "Long long ago …," yet quickly diverges into a narrative that serves as a metaphor for Britain's colonial past. This "last man" figure symbolizes the so-called "savage," a label European powers...
(This entire section contains 190 words.)
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like Britain and France used to justify their domination under the guise of benevolence. MacBeth humorously critiques colonialism's declared humanitarian aims, suggesting the Brigade's motives were purely noble—"to feed them." He further lampoons humanity's tendency to drive species to the brink and then showcase them in museums and zoos, as he poignantly describes in the penultimate stanza.
The poem reads like a cinematic journey, with MacBeth seamlessly transitioning perspectives and storylines. His masterful use of enjambment, letting lines flow without pause, adds a dynamic rhythm that keeps the audience eagerly anticipating the unfolding tale.
Compare and Contrast
1962: Sean Connery, the charismatic star hailing from Scotland, dazzles audiences in the inaugural James Bond adventure, Dr. No.
1995: Scotland's cinematic and tourist horizons brighten considerably as Mel Gibson's epic, Braveheart, sweeps the Oscars with five wins, reviving global fascination with Scotland's storied past.
Today: The suave Pierce Brosnan, originally from Ireland, graces the screen as the iconic James Bond.
1950: In a daring act of nationalism, Scottish insurgents reclaim the "Stone of Destiny" from its resting place in Westminster Abbey. This revered Coronation Stone, seized by the English in 1296, had been the seat of British monarchy coronations. Ultimately, the stone found its way back to Arbroath Abbey.
1996: The saga of the Stone of Destiny reaches a historic conclusion as it is permanently returned to Scotland, marking the end of its 700-year exile initiated by Edward I.
1997: In a monumental decision, the Scottish populace embraces "Devolution," with an overwhelming 75 percent majority voting for a self-governing parliament, distinct from England's legislative system, for the first time in centuries.
1958: The Democratic Republic of Congo sees the emergence of its most influential political force, the Movement National Congolais (MNC), founded by Patrice Lumumba, once a humble clerk within the postal service's district revenue office. Prior to this, political movements were defined by ethnic divisions.
1960-65: The Democratic Republic of Congo is swept into a maelstrom of political upheaval. In a tragic turn, Lumumba is assassinated by factions loyal to Colonel Mobutu Sese Seko, who consolidates power and assumes control by 1965.
1971: Mobutu Sese Seko imposes a new identity on the nation by renaming it the Republic of Zaire, and calls upon its citizens to adopt names of African origin.
1997: The tide of change rolls back as Laurent Kabila, supported by Rwandan-backed forces, ousts Seko and restores the nation's name to the Democratic Republic of Congo.
205 million B.C.: A cataclysmic extinction event sweeps away numerous amphibian and reptilian species, paving the way for the dinosaurs to ascend as the planet's preeminent creatures.
65 million B.C.: The curtain falls on the age of the dinosaurs as the last of their kind vanishes. This mass extinction also claims countless terrestrial and marine species, heralding the rise of mammals and the dawn of the Cenozoic Era, which characterizes our world today.
Today: Ecologists raise alarms over the staggering loss of hundreds of thousands of species over the past five decades. Projections, if current trends persist, suggest we may witness the extinction of half of all species within the coming century.
Media Adaptations
Exploring Mass Extinction
Delve into the sobering reality of mass extinction through vivid charts, compelling statistics, and solid scientific insights. This resource paints a stark picture of the alarming decrease in Earth's biodiversity. Explore more at: Mass Extinction Website.
Unveiling the History of Species Extinction
The WorldBook offers a rich tapestry of essays and historical context that shed light on the extinction of species throughout history. Discover a journey through time and nature's challenges at: WorldBook on Extinction.
A Glimpse into Scottish History
For those eager to explore the depths of Scottish history, this comprehensive resource awaits. Dive into the heart of Scotland's past here: Scottish History Resource.
Colonial Africa Bibliography
Professor George Landow at Brown University has meticulously gathered an extensive bibliography focusing on the history of Colonial Africa. Unearth a treasure trove of historical data at: Colonial Africa History.
Cinematic Exploration: Congo
In 1995, Frank Marshall brought to life Michael Crichton's gripping novel, Congo. The movie follows an expedition into the mysterious depths of Africa, where explorers encounter a lethal, unknown species of apes.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Arendt, Hannah, The Origins of Totalitarianism, New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968.
Hochman, Jhan, "An Interview with Thom Gunn," Portland Review, Vol. 28, No. 2, 1982, pp. 21-78.
MacBeth, George, A Child of the War, J. Cape, 1987. MacBeth, George, Collected Poems: 1958-1970, New York: Atheneum, 1972.
MacBeth, George, My Scotland: Fragments of a State of Mind.
Ries, Lawrence R., Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 40: Poets of Great Britain and Ireland Since 1960, edited by Vincent B. Sherry Jr., Detroit: Gale Research, 1985, pp. 327-337.
Rosenthal, M. L., The New Poets: American and British Poetry Since World War II, London: Oxford University Press, 1967.
Schmidt, Michael and Grevel Lindrop, eds., British Poetry Since 1960, Carcanet, 1972.
For Further Study
Acheson, James, and Romana Huk, eds., Contemporary British Poetry: Essays in Theory and Criticism, State University of New York Press, 1996. Devoted to close readings of poets and their contexts from various postmodern perspectives, this book offers a wide-ranging look at the work of feminists and "post feminist" poets, working class poets, and poets of diverse cultural backgrounds, as well as provocative re-readings of such well-established and influential figures as Donald Davie, Ted Hughes, Geoffrey Hill, and Craig Raine.
Gregson, Ian, Contemporary British Poetry and Postmodernism: Dialogue and Estrangement, New York: St. Martins Press, 1997. Gregorson examines how postmodern ideas such as intentionality, ideology, and indeterminacy have shaped contemporary British poetry. This is a sometimes rewarding, sometimes frustrating study.
