women's acceptance of their roles as caretakers and nurturers, often at the expense of their own well-being, underscores the entrenched gender norms that Allison challenges through Bone’s narrative.

The Role of Women in Boatwright Culture

In the Boatwright family, women work tirelessly and age swiftly under the weight of their obligations, a fate that Anney seems resigned to despite its cost. Bone’s observations of her mother and other female relatives reveal a culture where women’s value is intricately tied to their relationships with men. Anney’s eventual abandonment of Bone for Glen highlights the internalized belief that women are incomplete without male partnership, a notion that Allison critiques through her nuanced portrayal of Anney’s internal struggle.

Raylene: A Different Path

Raylene Boatwright, Bone’s aunt, represents an alternative to the traditional gender roles that ensnare the other women in Bone's life. Her independence and past romantic involvement with another woman mark her as a figure of nonconformity. Raylene’s understanding and unconditional love provide Bone with a sense of safety and acceptance absent in her mother’s relationship with Glen. Through Raylene, Allison suggests the possibility of a different, more liberated life for women—a vision that contrasts sharply with the entrenched patriarchal values of the Boatwright family.

A Lasting Impact

"Bastard Out of Carolina" is a testament to Allison’s ability to depict the intricacies of familial love and the resilience of the human spirit amidst overwhelming adversity. The novel resonates deeply as a narrative of personal and collective trauma, offering a raw yet compassionate exploration of the ways in which individuals navigate the legacies of pain and love. Allison’s unflinching portrayal of Bone’s journey and the complexities of the Boatwright family dynamics ensures the novel’s enduring place in the canon of American literature, offering insights into the human condition that are both timeless and deeply moving.

The 1950s marked an era of pronounced economic growth in America, with many citizens enjoying the rewards of a burgeoning middle class. However, beneath the surface of this apparent affluence, significant social challenges persisted, particularly for minorities and the impoverished. As the decade unfolded, societal norms, the role of women, and burgeoning civil rights movements shaped a complex tapestry of American life.

A Prosperous Nation?

During the 1950s, America seemed to be a land of prosperity. Unemployment and inflation rates were impressively low, hanging below 5 percent for much of the decade. A significant percentage of the population, over 60 percent, enjoyed middle-class incomes ranging from $3,000 to $10,000 annually. This economic boom led to a dramatic increase in homeownership, with an additional 21 million Americans becoming homeowners during this time. The government played its part, expanding social security and unemployment benefits, and raising the minimum wage. Educational spending saw an unprecedented boost under President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Nevertheless, this picture of prosperity was not universal. Nearly 40 million Americans lived near or below the poverty threshold of $3,000 for a family of four. As the wealth of the middle class burgeoned, many poorer citizens, especially African Americans and minorities, found themselves with a shrinking share of the national wealth. Rural poverty was particularly dire, marked by insufficient access to healthcare and education.

The South

The South experienced both demographic and social shifts during the 1950s. Many rural Southerners, seeking better opportunities, migrated to urban areas, while African Americans continued the Great Migration northward, seeking industrial jobs. This movement crescendoed in the mid-1950s, with northern cities witnessing an influx of approximately 2,000 African Americans each week.

Meanwhile, a religious fervor gripped the South, characterized by outdoor evangelical revivals. Prominent in this revival was Billy Graham, who, through his Evangelistic Association, spread religious messages via crusades, radio, and television, touching the lives of many Southerners.

Women in the 1950s

For women, the 1950s presented a complex landscape. While traditional roles emphasized homemaking, a significant portion of women worked outside the home, often part-time and in low-level jobs. These working conditions typically offered scant opportunities for career advancement. Although historically mothers from poorer families worked for wages, an increasing number of middle-class mothers joined the workforce during this decade.

Discrimination and exploitation were prevalent in both domestic and professional settings. Additionally, fewer women pursued higher education, as many women’s colleges either closed or transitioned to coeducational models.

The Fledgling Civil Rights Movement

The 1950s also witnessed the stirrings of the civil rights movement. A notable protest occurred in 1955 when African Americans in Montgomery, Alabama, initiated a bus boycott to end segregation. Maintaining the boycott for nearly a year, these efforts culminated in the Supreme Court’s declaration that Alabama's segregation laws were unconstitutional. This pivotal event not only desegregated the bus system but also propelled Martin Luther King, Jr., into the national spotlight as a prominent civil rights leader.

Two years earlier, in a landmark decision, the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka that racial segregation in schools was unconstitutional. This decision prompted Southern states to begin the contentious process of desegregating their educational institutions.

A Society of Conformity

Conformity emerged as a defining theme of the 1950s. Suburban neighborhoods epitomized this trend with their uniform houses and floor plans. However, this emphasis on conformity spurred a counterculture, particularly among teenagers who rejected societal norms through new music genres like rock 'n' roll and literature critical of adult hypocrisy.

Adults, too, pushed back against societal norms. In his book An Affluent Society, John Kenneth Galbraith critiqued America's materialism and its neglect of significant social issues. Meanwhile, the Beat Generation, a group of writers and poets, challenged middle-class conventions, seeking authenticity and self-discovery. Jack Kerouac's On the Road, a seminal work of this movement, celebrated the quest for individual identity, while authors like Ralph Ellison spotlighted the struggles of impoverished and marginalized Americans.

The intricacies of literary style and technique form the backbone of any compelling narrative. In the novel, "Bastard Out of Carolina," various stylistic elements such as symbolism, point of view, setting, and language come together to create a powerful exploration of themes like identity, poverty, and familial bonds. Through a vivid interplay of these elements, the author crafts a narrative that resonates with authenticity and emotional depth, offering readers a profound insight into the world of the protagonist, Bone.

Symbolism

At the core of "Bastard Out of Carolina" lies potent symbolism, with Bone's birth certificate emerging as the primary symbol throughout the novel. This document, marked with the word illegitimate, vividly represents the circumstances of Bone's birth and her subsequent struggle with societal judgment and her own sense of illegitimacy. As long as this birth certificate retains its accusatory notation, Bone is metaphorically tethered to her past. However, in a transformative moment at the novel's conclusion, Bone embarks on a journey of self-renewal, prompted by her mother Anney's abandonment. This rebirth is symbolized by a new birth certificate, void of the demeaning label, signaling Bone's potential to redefine herself and chart a new path forward.

Symbolism extends beyond the birth certificate to encompass Bone's environment and experiences. Her physical hunger mirrors a deeper spiritual yearning—a desire for the stability and prosperity she perceives others enjoy. This yearning intensifies during visits to Daddy Glen's affluent family, emphasizing the stark contrast between her impoverished reality and the world of privilege. The dismal living conditions of the homes that Daddy Glen selects further underscore this symbolic barrenness. These houses, with their "dry, coarse grass" and "naked and abandoned" appearance, reflect a sense of unwantedness and neglect, mirroring Bone's internal struggle and longing for belonging.

Point of View

The narrative unfolds through Bone's first-person perspective, offering a deeply personal glimpse into her experiences. Recounting past events with the wisdom and insight of an adult, Bone's voice captures the dichotomy between childhood innocence and the complex, often harsh realities she faced. This narrative technique allows Allison to delve into the nuanced issues of poverty, social stigma, and familial dynamics that permeate the novel. Through Bone's retrospective lens, readers gain a broader understanding of her family's actions and motivations, even as Bone herself grapples with unanswered questions, particularly regarding her mother's choices.

This dual-layered perspective enriches the narrative, blending the immediacy of Bone's childhood experiences with an adult's reflective insight. Bone's storytelling becomes an act of healing, a means through which she attempts to unravel the complexities of her past and make peace with the choices that shaped her life. Yet, despite her efforts, certain mysteries, such as Anney's decision to leave, remain elusive—echoing the often incomprehensible nature of human relationships and decisions.

Setting

Set in Greenville, South Carolina, in 1955, the novel's backdrop plays a pivotal role in shaping Bone's experiences. This small-town southern setting, which Bone describes as "the most beautiful place in the world," is steeped in cultural and social nuances that influence every aspect of the narrative. The Boatwrights, identified by Bone as "white trash" after reading Gone with the Wind, embody the stereotype of poor white southerners—uneducated, battling alcoholism, and navigating a world of violence and moral ambiguity.

The oppressive southern heat permeates the story, with its "burned grass and baked dirt" serving as a metaphor for the suffocating reality of Bone's life. The era's racial tensions and economic disparities further underscore the setting's significance. As the Civil Rights movement begins to take shape, the absence of African Americans in the narrative highlights the segregation prevalent at the time. A brief encounter with an African American family sharing living space with Aunt Alma offers a rare glimpse into race relations, capturing the prejudice and economic challenges faced by the black community. This incident not only reflects the societal norms of the period but also underscores the pervasive nature of economic hardship that transcends racial lines.

Language

Allison's masterful use of language stands out as a defining feature of the novel, capturing the essence of southern speech without resorting to clichéd dialect. Her characters' dialogues, though ungrammatical, resonate with authenticity, reflecting the speech patterns of marginalized southerners. In an interview with Minnie Bruce Pratt for The Progressive, Allison articulates her commitment to portraying the voices of her characters with dignity, rejecting conventional dialect representations that imply ignorance. "The language rhythms of the people I am writing about come entirely from gospel music, country music, and the church," she explains, emphasizing the intelligence and depth of her characters despite their lack of formal education.

Allison's distinctive linguistic style in "Bastard Out of Carolina" eschews conventional transliterations in favor of genuine speech patterns. Words like ain't and the repetition of adjectives—"black black hair" and "black black heart"—illustrate her nuanced approach. These elements of language enrich the narrative, adding layers of meaning and authenticity that draw readers into Bone's world, allowing them to hear the music in her words and the truth in her experiences.

Allison's ability to transcend the abuse and poverty of her childhood demonstrates that these challenges do not have to be lifelong. However, studies indicate that she is more of an exception than the norm. Many children raised in poverty struggle to break free because they cannot envision a path to change their circumstances. Allison instills in Bone a determination to excel in school despite her difficult home life, a determination that was crucial in Allison's own journey out of poverty.

1. Federal and local governments offer programs to assist low-income families. Research what resources are available in your community.

2. Recognizing that self-sufficiency fosters self-confidence, suggest ways to enhance an individual's earning potential.

3. Propose methods your local schools can implement to ensure all students graduate with the necessary skills to secure employment.

4. Should the community support unwed mothers in completing their education?

5. Discuss possible alternatives available to an unwed, teenage mother.

6. Research the impact of giving up a baby for adoption on the mother's later life.

7. How does Allison convey her feminist views in Bastard out of Carolina?

8. What does research reveal about the effects of open adoption on the child, the birth mother, and the adoptive family?

9. Investigate the causes of infant mortality in your area.

10. Compare the current job outlook for women with the job prospects for women in the 1950s.

• 1950s: A 1957 study reveals that approximately forty million Americans live at or below the poverty line of $3,000 for a family of four.

  Today: By 1995, 36.4 million Americans, including 27.5 million families, live in poverty. The poverty threshold for a family of four is $15,569.

• 1950s: Throughout the decade, about sixty-three percent of the U.S. population identifies as church members. In 1958, 109 million Americans have an official religious affiliation.

  Today: In 1998, seventy percent of Americans report being members of a church or synagogue. Forty percent have attended a church or synagogue within the past week.

• 1950s: By the end of the decade, thirty-nine percent of women with children aged six to seventeen work outside the home. Approximately 6.6 million women with children aged seventeen and under are employed outside the home.

  Today: In the early 1990s, seventy-one percent of married women work outside the home. About 18.2 million women with children aged seventeen and under are employed outside the home.

• 1950s: The birthrate in 1957 is 4.3 million, translating to 25.3 births per 1,000 Americans.

  Today: In 1997, the birthrate is 3.8 million, or 14.6 births per 1,000 Americans.

• 1950s: The average age for a first marriage is twenty for women and nearly twenty-three for men.

  Today: The average age for a first marriage is twenty-four for women and nearly twenty-six for men.

• 1950s: By the end of the decade, 125 million Americans reside in urban areas while 54 million live in rural regions. Throughout the decade, the rural population decreases by seventeen percent, with an average of 1.4 million rural residents moving to cities each year for better-paying jobs.

  Today: Currently, more than seventy-five percent of Americans live in urban areas.

Praised by George Garrett in the New York Times Book Review as "a major new talent," Allison's Bastard out of Carolina can be likened to the works of several authors. In Contemporary Literature, Horvitz draws a parallel to Gayl Jones's Corregidora. Horvitz highlights "the complex, intertwined relationships between sexual trauma, its repression, and its potential healing through narration/narrative" evident in both books. By comparing Bone and Ursa, Horvitz notes that both characters are in a form of bondage. He continues, "both novels stress the vital need to comprehend and integrate one's past, particularly when that history stems from and is rooted in sexual/violent trauma."

Patricia Gulian, writing for Library Journal, observes that the character Sister in Janice Daugharty's Like a Sister is reminiscent of Bone. Both characters endure poverty, abuse, and abandonment, and experience the alienation of being outsiders. While Bone finds a way to escape, Sister does not.

Allison's poetry and short story collections, The Women Who Hate Me and Trash, garnered acclaim for her literary talents in the 1980s. Annmarie Pinarski, writing for Discovering Authors, notes that the poems in The Women Who Hate Me "explore love, sexual desire, betrayal, and bitterness . . . weaving memory and metaphor together with specific experience." Trash, a compilation of short stories rooted in childhood experiences, physical violence, poverty, class politics, and lesbian sexuality, earned two Lambda Book Awards for lesbian fiction.

Allison's nonfiction work includes Skin: Talking about Sex, Class, and Literature, a collection of essays, performance pieces, and autobiographical narratives that reflect her ongoing commitment to feminism. Pinarski highlights another homage to the women in Allison's life, Two or Three Things I Know for Sure, a multimedia piece first performed in San Francisco in 1991. Revised and published in 1995, the book is dedicated to Allison's sisters. She explains that the characters are "creations based on friends, family, and acquaintances." This memoir, which includes photographs of family members, emphasizes her belief that "The bottom line is I'm writing to save the dead."

In 1999, Allison published Cavedweller, which tells the story of Delia Byrd, a rock singer who returns to her Georgia hometown after a decade-long absence. She seeks to reconnect with the daughters she left behind when she escaped an abusive husband. A review in Christian Century describes it as "a narrative about an entire community." The central theme is redemption: how Delia can make amends to her daughters, her husband, and the community.

Aired on Showtime on December 15, 1996, Anjelica Huston's adaptation of Bastard out of Carolina offers a "blunt, at times shockingly graphic approach" to the novel, according to Lisa Schwarzbaum in Entertainment Weekly. Initially created for TNT, Ted Turner declined to broadcast the film, labeling it "too disturbing." Featuring eleven-year-old Jena Malone as Ruth Anne, Jennifer Jason Leigh as Anney, and Ron Eldard as Daddy Glen, the movie centers on Ruth Anne's "misery and her growing resolve to fight back." Although the viewer may feel ashamed watching the violence, Huston's achievement lies in creating "a sense of blood ties and love, even among family members as beaten down as the Boatwrights," Schwarzbaum notes.

Dorothy Allison narrates an audio version produced in 1993. Spanning two cassettes, the recording has a total runtime of 180 minutes. Publishers Weekly describes the reading as "persuasive in its eerie emotional tenor," praising Allison's voice for capturing the "ominous flat stillness of a calm before a storm."

• An audiotape of Bastard Out of Carolina, narrated by Allison, was released by Penguin Highbridge Audio in 1993.
• Angelica Houston directed the film adaptation of Bastard Out of Carolina, which featured a screenplay by Anne Meredith. Jennifer Jason Leigh portrayed Anney, while Jena Malone took on the role of Bone.

Sources
Aletti, Vince. Review of Bastard Out of Carolina. In Voice Literary Supplement, June 1992, p. 7.

Garrett, George. "No Wonder People Got Crazy as They Grew Up." In New York Times, July 5, 1992, p. 3.

Herman, Judith Lewis. Trauma and Recovery. Basic Books, 1992.

Hollibaugh, Amber. Review of Bastard Out of Carolina. In Women's Review of Books, July 1992, p. 15.

Horvitz, Deborah. "'Sadism Demands a Story': Oedipus Feminism and Sexuality in Gayl Jones's 'Corregidora' and Dorothy Allison's 'Bastard Out of Carolina.'" In Contemporary Literature, Volume 39, No. 2, Summer 1998, p. 238.

Jetter, Alexis. Interview with Allison. In New York Times Magazine, December 17, 1995, p. 54.

Karpen, Lynn. Interview with Allison. In New York Times Book Review, June 26, 1994, p. 54.

Kenan, Randall. Review of Bastard Out of Carolina. In The Nation, December 28, 1992, p. 815.

Meem, Deborah. "Dorothy Allison: Overview." In Feminist Writers, edited by Pamela Kester-Shelton. St. James Press, 1996.

Review of Bastard Out of Carolina. In Publishers Weekly, January 27, 1992, p. 88.

Young, Elizabeth. Review of Bastard Out of Carolina. In New Statesman and Society, January 8, 1993, p. 41.

For Further Study
Jetter, Alexis. "The Roseanne of Literature." In New York Times Magazine, December 17, 1995, p. 54. The piece offers a profile of Dorothy Allison's life and background.

Pratt, Minnie Bruce. Interview with Dorothy Allison. In The Progressive, July 1995, p. 30. This in-depth interview explores Allison's career, educational history, and perspectives on politics and feminism.