to extend further loans to the government.

With few options, Louis XVI summoned representatives from all three estates to the Estates General, a meeting at the Palace of Versailles in May 1789. He hoped they would endorse his proposal to tax the wealthy. However, the Third Estate rejected the longstanding practice that allowed each estate to cast a single collective vote, a system that often resulted in the First and Second Estates outvoting them. When the king adjourned the meeting without resolution, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly on July 17, 1789. This declaration marked the beginning of the French Revolution, ultimately leading to the fall of the French monarchy.

The French Theater
French drama experienced significant growth in the 1600s, particularly during France's neoclassical period, which dominated the seventeenth century. Pierre Corneille, who penned over thirty plays, adhered mostly to Aristotle's principles of unity in time, place, and action. In contrast, Jean Racine introduced a more straightforward style, featuring realistic characters and plotlines. Molière, known for his comedic brilliance, delved into social, psychological, and metaphysical themes. The works of these playwrights continue to be staples in both French and global theater. Other influential dramatists of this era include the romantic playwright Pierre Marivaux and the absurdist comic Paul Scarron. Beaumarchais famously drew inspiration for the subtitle of The Barber of Seville from a short story by Scarron.

The 1700s saw fewer major advancements in drama; however, Beaumarchais brought fresh innovations to French comedy. His plays featured social commentary, quick-paced action, lively dialogue, and intricate plots. Although his works were primarily comedic, filled with entertaining plots and schemes, they also subtly highlighted and critiqued social injustices of the time.

Enlightenment
During the 1700s, many educated Europeans began to question the long-standing traditions and norms that governed society and politics. This shift in thought, known as the Enlightenment, was driven by influential thinkers called philosophes (the French term for philosophers). These thinkers aimed to improve both themselves and society, fostering a growing emphasis on individualism and personal liberty. Importantly, they also advocated for the fundamental equality of all people, challenging the prevailing governmental and social systems across Europe.

France played a critical role in the advancement of Enlightenment ideas. Many political concepts that remain relevant today, such as the separation of powers and popular sovereignty, originated from French Enlightenment thinkers. The Baron de Montesquieu, in his 1748 work The Spirit of Laws, defined an ideal government as one where power is distributed among separate branches to prevent any single entity from gaining excessive control. Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed in the innate goodness of humans, asserting that society was responsible for corrupting individuals. In The Social Contract (1762), Rousseau envisioned an ideal society comprised of free citizens who established their own government based on their collective will.

Comedy
In his first two plays, Beaumarchais aimed to support the dramatic approach known as bourgeois drama. This approach sought to replace the neoclassical forms of drama with themes and techniques relevant to contemporary society. Bourgeois drama was a serious form of theater, written in straightforward prose, focusing on moral lessons within modern social settings. Despite this, Beaumarchais's attempts in this genre were largely unsuccessful. With The Barber of Seville, he shifted away from bourgeois drama and embraced pure comedy. The basic storyline is rooted in comedic traditions dating back to the Greek New Comedy around 300 B.C.E. Yet, as John Richetti notes in European Writers, ‘‘what made his [Beaumarchais’s] play much more than popular farce is . . . the irrepressible wit and cascading linguistic vivacity.’’ The play's comedic essence is captured in Figaro, whom Beaumarchais describes in the play's foreword as ‘‘a comic, happy-go-lucky fellow who laughs equally at the success and failure of his enterprises.’’

Characterization
The characters in The Barber of Seville are classic archetypes that trace back to ancient Greek theater. Figaro embodies the clever servant; the Count and Rosine are the archetypal young lovers; Bartholo is the older man trying to obstruct their romance; and Bazile is the fool lacking common sense. Beaumarchais also incorporates two character types common in Spanish entremeses, which were post-dinner performances in private homes: the wandering Spanish barber, personified by Figaro, and the comic sacristan, whom Beaumarchais adapts as Bazile.

Autobiography
Numerous critics have highlighted the similarities between Figaro’s escapades and those of his creator, Beaumarchais. John Wells states in his introduction to The Figaro Plays, ‘‘Figaro became Beaumarchais’s spokesman on stage, and the three plays represent a kind of autobiography.’’ Both Figaro and Beaumarchais launched their careers as playwrights in Spain. Both aspired to a more liberal future where personal talent outweighed social class.

Figaro is introduced to the audience while crafting a comic opera. However, it is in his monologues that the parallels become more pronounced, as Figaro recounts life experiences that often mirror Beaumarchais's own. For instance, similar to Beaumarchais, Figaro has pursued writing, becoming one of those ‘‘beset by . . . their critics, their booksellers, their censors, the people who envied them, and the people who imitated them.’’ Figaro’s accounts of traveling ‘‘philosophically through the two Castiles, La Mancha, Estremadura, Sierra Morena, and the Andalusia, being acclaimed in one town, jailed in another, but always on top of events; praised by these people, denounced by those people . . . laughing at my misfortune’’ reflect Beaumarchais’s own journeys across Europe. While modern audiences may not recognize these references, Beaumarchais’s contemporary audience grasped the subtle critiques aimed at those who opposed the playwright.

Trilogy
Beaumarchais’s Figaro plays, The Barber of Seville, The Marriage of Figaro, and A Mother’s Guilt, form a trilogy. In the first play, The Barber of Seville, Figaro devises a plan that successfully helps the Count win Rosine's affection. The Marriage of Figaro sees Count Almaviva and Figaro, once allies, become adversaries as Figaro must cleverly defend his fiancée from the Count's romantic advances. The trilogy concludes with A Mother’s Guilt, where the Count, Countess, and their loyal servants, Figaro and his wife, are settled in France.

Despite being a trilogy, there are several inconsistencies throughout the plays. One of the most notable is the change in the Count’s character. In The Barber of Seville, he is portrayed as a young lover deeply in love with Rosine. However, in The Marriage of Figaro, he becomes a lascivious husband attempting to invoke his feudal right to spend the wedding night with his vassal’s bride. Another significant inconsistency is the setting. While the first two plays occur in Old Spain, A Mother’s Guilt is set in Revolutionary France.

1770s: France operates as a monarchy under the rule of King Louis XVI, who wields absolute power. Throughout the eighteenth century, Enlightenment thinkers increasingly advocate for the establishment of new governmental institutions.

Today: France functions as a republic led by a president elected through popular vote for a seven-year term.

1770s: Approximately one-third of the population can read, with literacy predominantly among men. Outside the aristocracy and the upper bourgeoisie, few women possess reading and writing skills.

Today: France boasts a literacy rate of 99 percent.

1770s: French women are denied the rights available to men. For example, the father holds absolute authority within the family, and males typically have precedence over females in matters of inheritance.

Today: Laws ensure that women have political, economic, and social rights equal to those of men. However, French women continue to earn less than men, occupy fewer high-level positions, and perform about 80 percent of the household chores.

1770s: The nobility, comprising less than two percent of the population, enjoy privileges such as the right to collect feudal dues from peasants. They occupy the highest ranks in the military and government. Members of the Third Estate, however, have the opportunity to purchase titles and join the aristocracy.

Today: An aristocratic class still exists in France, but many members now work for a living. Class distinctions are generally accepted, and many remain rigid, despite children from all classes attending state schools.

The Barber of Seville was transformed into a four-act opera, Il barbiere di Siviglia, in 1782. The music was composed by Giovanni Paisiello, while the libretto was crafted by Giuseppe Petrosellini. In 1816, a three-act comic opera, also named Il barbiere di Siviglia, premiered with music by Gioacchino Rossini and a libretto by Cesare Sterbini. Although it initially received a lukewarm reception, partly due to the popularity of Paisiello's version, it has since been acknowledged as one of Rossini's masterpieces. Numerous recordings of this opera are available today. By the early 20th century, at least nine additional operatic adaptations of The Barber of Seville had been written and performed.

Sources
Brereton, Geoffrey, French Comic Drama from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, Metheun & Co. Ltd., 1977, pp. 237–55.

Dunkley, John, ‘‘The Barber of Seville: Overview’’ in Reference Guide to World Literature, 2nd ed., edited by Lesley Henderson, St. James Press, 1995.

Grendel, Frédéric, ‘‘The Barber of Seville,’’ in Beaumarchais: The Man Who Was Figaro, translated by Roger Greaves, Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1977, pp. 134–45.

Reish, Joseph G., ‘‘Revolution: Three Changing Faces of Figaro,’’ in the Michigan Academician, Vol. IX, No. 2, Fall 1976, pp. 135–46.

Richetti, John, ‘‘Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais,’’ in European Writers, Vol. 4, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1984, pp. 563–85.

Wells, John, ‘‘Introduction (I),’’ in The Figaro Plays, by Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, translated by John Wells and edited by John Leigh, J. M. Dent, 1997, pp. xvii–xxii.

Further Reading
Hayes, Julie C., The Age of Theatre in France, edited by David Trott and Nicole Boursier, Academic Printing & Publishing, 1988. This book compiles essays on the French theater during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

Howarth, William D., Beaumarchais and the Theatre, Routledge, 1995. Howarth examines Beaumarchais’s plays and their critical reception, considering the political and theatrical events of the era.

McDonald, Christie, ‘‘The Anxiety of Change: Reconfiguring Family Relations in Beaumarchais’s Trilogy,’’ in Modern Language Quarterly, March 1994, p. 47. McDonald explores the portrayal of family dynamics in The Barber of Seville, The Marriage of Figaro, and A Mother’s Guilt.

Sungolowsky, Joseph, Beaumarchais, Twayne, 1974. Sungolowsky offers a comprehensive overview of Beaumarchais’s life and literary achievements.