Historical Context
Irish Nationalism and the Flourishing of Nineteenth-Century Literature
From the sixteenth century onward, the Protestant English stood as the dominant economic, political, and cultural power in Ireland. Their settlement of vast tracts of land marked the beginning of a period where, throughout the seventeenth century, these Anglo-Irish settlers, bolstered by the British Crown, seized lands from native Irish Catholics. They erected a fortress of oppressive laws that barred Catholics from numerous professions and denied them property ownership. Consequently, the melodic tones of Irish Gaelic were overshadowed by the English tongue, quelling the spirit of traditional Irish culture.
In a glimmer of autonomy, Britain allowed the Irish Parliament legislative independence in 1780. Despite the Parliament's Protestant majority, it extended several religious and land reforms to Catholics, yet withheld the crucial right to vote. In 1798, Irish Catholics staged a valiant rebellion against English rule, but their insurrection was crushed, leading to the dissolution of the Irish Parliament. The Act of Union, enacted three years later, absorbed Ireland into the United Kingdom's fold.
The year 1842 witnessed the emergence of a new epoch, as poet and activist Thomas Davis, along with fellow writers, established The Nation, a weekly publication that ignited a fervent sense of nationalism among the Irish. Prior to this renaissance, Irish literature largely served entertainment or social satire, but by the mid-nineteenth century, it began to echo the pulse of political unrest.
The concluding years of the nineteenth century saw a flourishing of literary endeavors, prompting historians to christen this era the Irish Renaissance. Writers of the time delved into the rich tapestry of Irish folklore and mythology, sowing seeds for a literary rebirth. Visionary nationalists like John O’Leary and W.B. Yeats united under the Young Ireland Society, advocating for Irish nationalism through the power of the pen. Yeats further championed the cause by founding the Irish Literary Society in London in 1891 and the National Literary Society in Dublin a year later, both dedicated to fostering an independent Ireland through the arts.
The Gaelic League, born in 1893, pursued the revival of Irish as the nation's spoken language. That pivotal year also saw Douglas Hyde bring Irish Gaelic folktales to the English-speaking world, alongside Yeats’s publication of The Celtic Twilight, a compendium of his reflections on Irish legends.
Irish literary resurgence found a vibrant expression on the stage. In 1902, Yeats, together with Lady Gregory, launched the Irish Literary Theatre, later known as the Irish National Theatre Society. By 1904, with the help of a generous benefactor, their artistic visions graced the stage of Dublin’s renowned Abbey Theatre.
The Abbey Theatre: A Beacon of Irish Drama
In 1902, the Irish Literary Theatre unfurled its curtains in Dublin, guided by the hands of Yeats and his confidante, Lady Gregory. Their mission: to inspire Irish playwrights to craft dramas that mirrored the essence of Irish life. At a time when many writers hesitated to stray from the shadow of dominant Protestant English culture, Lady Gregory and Yeats stood firm in their belief that a national literature could fortify Irish nationalism. They encouraged the dramatists to weave the fabric of Irish peasantry, folklore, and legendary heroes into their narratives.
Initially performing in various venues, by 1904, the company secured the acclaimed Abbey Theatre, courtesy of the patronage of Annie Elizabeth Horniman, and adopted the name Irish National Theatre Society. They quickly amassed a loyal audience, staging works from dramatic giants like Sean O’Casey and John Synge, whose provocative play The Playboy of the Western World took to the Abbey stage in 1907.
While some critics argue that the Abbey's...
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production quality waned following Yeats’s passing in 1939, the theatre's spirit endured even after a fire in 1951 necessitated a temporary relocation. By 1966, the Abbey had reopened, boasting an acting school and a second stage for avant-garde performances. Its repertoire expanded to embrace the timeless works of Shakespeare and contemporary European playwrights, cementing its place as a diverse cultural beacon.
Literary Style
Stream-of-Consciousness Writing Style
In his captivating Autobiographies, Yeats crafts long, sprawling paragraphs, some stretching beyond a single page. This unique style immerses the reader in a vivid tapestry of narratives, filled with a multitude of characters and intertwined plots, all mysteriously interconnected. Employing a stream-of-consciousness approach, Yeats gracefully navigates from one subject to another, as thoughts arise naturally and spontaneously, unfettered by conventional structure.
Analysts of Yeats’s autobiographical essays have pointed out that the accuracy of locations and dates often wavers. Yet, these discrepancies rarely disturb the evocative ambiance of his work. Although the essays tend to follow a chronological progression, time is not the axis around which the narrative revolves. Instead, the essence lies in the individuals Yeats recalls, their actions, and the profound impact they left on his life.
Essays
Yeats’s Autobiographies unfolds through a sequence of essays, each initially released on its own. The reflective pieces "Reveries Over Childhood and Youth" and "The Trembling of the Veil," which explore his life in the late 1800s, were published separately in 1915 and 1922. By 1926, these essays were united into a single volume. The period from 1896 to Yeats's Nobel Prize triumph in 1923 is chronicled through four essays: "Dramatis Personae," "Estrangement," "The Death of Synge," and "The Bounty of Sweden." Eventually, all six essays were compiled in 1955, presented collectively as Autobiographies in a comprehensive volume.
Compare and Contrast
The 1920s: A Decade of Literary Triumphs and Political Tumult
• 1920s: In the year 1923, the illustrious poet W.B. Yeats ascends to literary immortality as he claims the Nobel Prize for Literature.
• 1920s: Amidst the strife of the Anglo-Irish War, Ireland endures three intense years of guerrilla conflict, as the Irish Republican Army battles for independence from British rule. The Anglo-Irish Treaty emerges, birthing the Irish Free State, a new entity of twenty-six southern counties. It stands as a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, akin to Canada, with a mere sliver of allegiance to the British crown. W.B. Yeats graces the political stage as a senator for the Free State from 1922 to 1928. Meanwhile, six Protestant counties consent to limited self-governance as Northern Ireland, embracing their bond with Britain to preserve their religious and societal standing. However, the partition remains a poignant symbol for many Irish Catholics, epitomizing yet another chapter of British exploitation.
• 1920s: In this era, autobiographical works and memoirs find their authorship largely among the renowned and those who have wielded influence in spheres of government, art, or science, much like Yeats's own essays.
• 1920s: Yeats's Nobel Prize for Literature carries with it the leanest monetary reward in the history of the award, amounting to 114,000 Swedish kroner.
Modern Day Reflections: Continuing Legacies and Transformations
Today: In 1995, Seamus Heaney, another Irish poet of great acclaim, is bestowed the honor of the Nobel Prize for Literature. By 1998, the Nobel Peace Prize is shared by two visionary Irishmen, committed to quelling the lingering violence in their homeland. Roman Catholic co-winner John Hume, a founding leader of the Social Democratic and Labour Party, is hailed by the Nobel Committee as ‘‘the clearest and most consistent of Northern Ireland’s political leaders.’’ His Protestant counterpart, David Trimble, the head of the Ulster Unionist Party, earns praise for his "great political courage" during critical negotiations that paved the way for peace.
Today: The Irish Free State has evolved into the sovereign Republic of Ireland, shedding any vestiges of loyalty to the British Crown. Yet, Northern Ireland remains entwined with the United Kingdom, where a delicate balance persists between the Catholic community and the Protestant majority.
Today: Autobiographies and memoirs are no longer the exclusive domain of the famed; they have burgeoned into a wildly popular genre, penned by individuals from all walks of life. Amazon.com showcases an astonishing collection of over thirty-two thousand titles in this category.
Today: The 2000 Nobel Prize for Literature boasts the most generous prize fund in its history, an impressive nine million Swedish kroner, translating to approximately $915,000.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Edwards, Diane Tolomeo, ‘‘William Butler Yeats,’’ in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 98: Modern British Essayists, edited by Robert Baum, Gale Research, 1990, pp. 328–41.
Heaney, Seamus, ‘‘All Ireland’s Bard,’’ in Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 280, No. 5, November 1997, pp. 155–60.
Reid, B. L., ‘‘William Butler Yeats,’’ in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 19: British Poets, edited by Donald E. Stanford, Gale Research, 1983, pp. 399–452.
Spencer, Theodore, ‘‘The Later Poetry of W. B. Yeats,’’ in Literary Opinion in America, edited by Morton Dauwen Zabel, Harper, 1962, pp. 270–81.
Stillwell, Edith, ‘‘William Butler Yeats,’’ in Aspects of Modern Poetry, Duckworth, 1934, pp. 73–89.
Wilson, Edmund, ‘‘W. B. Yeats,’’ in Axel’s Castle: A Study in the Imaginative Literature of 1870–1930, Scribner’s, 1931, pp. 26–63.
Further Reading
Bogan, Louise, ‘‘William Butler Yeats,’’ in Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 161, No. 5, May 1938, pp. 637–44. This article, published not long before Yeats’s death in early 1939, expresses appreciation of the aging poet and dramatist and includes an overview of his life and accomplishments.
Cahill, Thomas, How the Irish Saved Civilization: The Untold Story of Ireland’s Heroic Role from the Fall of Rome to the Rise of Medieval Europe, Nan A. Talese/Doubleday, 1995. This book covers, in a relatively light manner, the early history of Ireland, including the legends and myths of many characters in whom Yeats was interested in his search for a unifying Irish literature.
Foster, R. F., W. B. Yeats, A Life, Vol. 1: The Apprentice Mage 1865–1914, Oxford University Press, 1997. This is the first in a planned series of two biographical volumes on the life of Yeats. In this volume, R. F. Foster covers the writer’s life through his middle years, when he was especially involved in Irish drama and in running the famed Abbey Theatre.
Shaw, Robert B., ‘‘Tragic Generations,’’ in Poetry, Vol. 175, No. 3, p. 210. In this article, Robert Shaw compares the state of poetry at the end of the twentieth century with poetry at the end of the nineteenth century, with an especially close examination of those poets Yeats referred to in his essay ‘‘The Trembling of the Veil’’ in Autobiographies.
