Aristotle's philosophy is grounded in the belief that all things are ordered teleologically. This means that for any object or event, a complete understanding requires knowledge of its purpose or intention, as well as its physical antecedents. Aristotle's approach stands in contrast to modern scientific thinking, which often focuses on causal explanations to exert control over nature.

Teleological and Causal Explanations

Aristotle posited that explanations can be either teleological, emphasizing purpose, or causal, focusing on antecedents. For instance, a chair's purpose is sitting, while a wall crack results from an earthquake. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a shift occurred as thinkers began to prioritize causal explanations as the means to gain control over natural phenomena. Despite this shift, Aristotle's work is often misinterpreted as neglecting physical causes, though his extensive scientific investigations demonstrate otherwise. For Aristotle, science was not about control but understanding nature through both teleological and causal lenses.

Aristotle emphasized that explanations are only complete when they contribute to a unified understanding of reality. He believed that the special sciences, such as biology and physics, should deduce explanations from a minimal set of principles, but these principles themselves must be justified through dialectical reasoning. His methodology involved addressing conflicting opinions and unifying partial truths into a more comprehensive understanding.

Metaphysics

Aristotle's metaphysics seeks to justify common human beliefs about existence and reality. Previous philosophers like Heraclitus argued for a constantly changing world based on sensory knowledge, while Parmenides dismissed change as illusory, relying on reason. Aristotle, however, aimed to reconcile these views by justifying commonsense beliefs through a rigorous analysis of "things."

Aristotle’s metaphysical inquiry begins with the question of what it means for things to exist, move, and change. He differentiates between a thing's "substantial form," which defines its essence, and its "accidental form," which may change without altering its essence. This distinction allows Aristotle to refute Heraclitus's and Parmenides's radical conclusions about change and permanence by introducing concepts such as potentiality, actuality, material, and formal causes.

Four Causes and First Principles

To fully understand an object or change, Aristotle introduced the concept of "four causes": material cause (what something is made of), formal cause (its form), efficient cause (its creator or initiator), and final cause (its purpose). These causes are central to Aristotle's explanation of the universe, where a chain of causes leads to a "first cause," which is conceptually necessary to avoid an infinite regress.

Aristotle’s notion of a "first cause" is not temporal but rational, asserting that an infinite series of causes without a first cause is unintelligible. The unmoved mover, or God, serves as this final cause, sustaining motion and change without itself being moved, thereby resolving the question of causation in the universe.

Nicomachean Ethics

Aristotle’s ethical philosophy centers on the idea that happiness results from fulfilling one's essential human nature through virtuous activities. Rather than a strict adherence to moral rules, Aristotle's ethics emphasizes character and the pursuit of human excellence. The essence of morality, for Aristotle, lies in achieving happiness through virtuous activities that align with one's rational and social nature.

Happiness, according to Aristotle, is the ultimate goal of human life, achievable through activities that are in accordance with reason and social engagement. Human beings, superior in reason and social organization, find fulfillment when these capacities are nurtured in a well-ordered society. Thus, knowledge and virtue are intertwined, as a virtuous character fosters happiness and societal stability.

Aristotle's "mean" refers to the balance or moderation in virtues, such as liberality, which varies according to individual circumstances. This balance is not determined by cultural differences but rather by rational principles articulated by individuals of practical wisdom, akin to how health experts determine nutritional needs. Happiness is thus linked to stable, self-reinforcing virtuous activities that contribute to a flourishing life.

Poetics

In his Poetics, Aristotle extends his teleological framework to the arts, particularly tragedy. He argues that the purpose of poetry is to provide pleasure through imitation, which facilitates learning. Tragic drama, in particular, purges excessive emotions like fear and pity, aligning with Aristotle's belief that all things are best understood through their purposes.

Central to tragic drama is the plot, which Aristotles sees as the most critical element. A well-crafted plot must be complete and coherent, with a structured beginning, middle, and end, and events must unfold with necessity rather than by chance. Tragedy, therefore, offers a deeper philosophical insight than history, which often lacks the coherent structure of a dramatic plot.