Although Shakespeare was well acquainted with the history and literature of his day and of preceding centuries, he did not hesitate to amend the known facts of history, if it served his dramatic purposes. Antony and Cleopatra was not well received when it was first produced. Since then, Antony and Cleopatra has grown in favor with both producers and readers. Modern productions have received considerably better reviews, on the whole, than any that were published during the playwright’s lifetime.

Antony and Cleopatra is the second in a trilogy of Roman plays (the first was Julius Caesar; the third, Coriolanus); Shakespeare wrote about an era some 1700 years before his own time. His main source of historical information was Plutarch, whose biographies of great Greeks and Romans has remained a staple of literature for nearly 2,000 years and is still read today.

The famous first triumvirate of Rome—consisting of Julius Caesar, Marcus Crassus, and Pompey the Great—dissolved with the conspiracy of Brutus, Cassius and others against Julius Caesar, and resulted in his assassination. Crassus was murdered by the Parthians, and Pompey the Great was defeated in an uprising against Rome. Following the death of Julius Caesar, the second triumvirate came into being and consisted of Octavius (the adopted son and designated heir of Julius Caesar), Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. The members of the second triumvirate defeated the forces led by Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in 42 B.C. The triumvirate’s forces in that battle were led by Mark Antony.

Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, lived in Alexandria, the Egyptian capital city. Mark Antony went to see her, fell in love with her, and remained for a considerable time, much to the disgust of the other two triumvirs. The matter came to a head when Sextus Pompeius, a son of Pompey the Great, became militarily powerful and threatened Rome itself. He maintained his headquarters near Messina (in Sicily); his henchmen were engaged in piracy in and around the Straits of Messina. The pirates become so strong that normal shipping became impossibly dangerous in that area. The three triumvirs met with Sextus Pompeius and offered him the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, if he would cease his piracy of the Straits of Messina and his threat to Rome itself. He agreed.

Later Octavius arrested Lepidus, charging him with treason against Rome. Octavius sailed, with an armada, for Greece and fought a sea battle with Antony near Actium. Octavius won and forced Antony back to Egypt. Finally, Octavius, in Egypt, defeated Antony and added Egypt to the Roman Empire. Antony committed suicide, followed by Cleopatra, thus leaving Octavius as the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.

Set against the backdrop of the Roman Empire, the tale of Antony and Cleopatra unfolds with an intricate juxtaposition of two contrasting worlds. As the narrative oscillates between the opulent, sensual Egypt and the disciplined, austere Rome, the characters find themselves caught in a web of political intrigue and personal desire. The settings are not mere backdrops but active participants in the unfolding drama, reflecting the internal and external conflicts faced by the protagonists.

Egypt

Egypt, with its lush landscapes and mysterious allure, stands as a symbol of exoticism and excess. During the time of Cleopatra, the land is depicted as a place where the usual rules do not apply, characterized by its fertile Nile River and unconventional social practices. Cleopatra, the embodiment of Egypt, captivates Mark Antony with her extravagant passion. As a ruler tasked with maintaining order, Antony is drawn into Egypt’s seductive chaos, gradually shifting his allegiance away from Rome’s rigid values. The play’s dynamic shifts between Egypt and various parts of the Roman Empire highlight Antony’s internal struggle, torn between his duty to Rome and his consuming love for Cleopatra.

Rome

In stark contrast, Rome represents steadfast order and tradition, the heart of a civilization where duty and decorum reign supreme. The play opens with Antony’s followers disapproving of his neglect of Roman responsibilities, hinting at the cultural tensions that define his journey. Rome’s influence is persistent, pulling Antony back to its political machinations, leading him to marry Octavia in a bid for power. However, Rome’s allure eventually falters as Antony’s passion for Cleopatra rekindles, reigniting the conflict between reason and emotion, duty and desire. Shakespeare crafts this dichotomy without a clear resolution, inviting audiences to ponder the merits and pitfalls of each world.

Cleopatra’s Monument

The play’s action narrows its focus towards a somber conclusion within the confines of Cleopatra’s monument. After Antony’s suicide, prompted by the false news of Cleopatra’s own death, the narrative shifts from grand political struggles to intimate personal tragedy. The monument becomes a poignant setting for the closing scenes, where the distance between the lovers is both literal and metaphorical. In a tragic twist of fate, Cleopatra’s final act of defiance against Roman domination is her own suicide, ensuring that she remains forever united with Antony. Thus, the merging of Rome and Egypt culminates not in conquest but in a poignant surrender to love and legacy.

Antony and Cleopatra explores the clash between Roman and Egyptian values. The play does not suggest that one set of values is superior to the other. Instead, it seems to convey that achieving worldly success requires caution, self-discipline, and rationality. This path necessitates abandoning spontaneity, joy, and laughter. Antony struggles to reconcile these two ways of living. Is such a compromise achievable? Or must we choose between professional success and personal happiness? Can one truly "have it all"?

Commentators often highlight that the play leaves many questions unanswered. The nature of Antony's love for Cleopatra, the essence of her enduring allure, and Caesar's motivations remain uncertain and open to debate. No definitive interpretation of Antony and Cleopatra exists. This ambiguity can be frustrating, but it also reflects the complexity of human experience. Perhaps the play suggests that judging Antony's love or Cleopatra's sincerity is as precarious as attempting to define or categorize human beings.

Likewise, the ambiguous portrayal of the main characters in Antony and Cleopatra might reflect the contradictions within all of us. The mix of comic and tragic perspectives in the play unsettles many readers and commentators. Antony's love for Cleopatra sometimes appears foolish, especially considering his middle-aged status. Yet it also enriches his life and enhances our appreciation of him as someone with a comprehensive view of the world's pleasures. Is Cleopatra as devoted to Antony as her grand speeches in the play's final act suggest? Or is she playing a role, trying to convince herself and others that her love for Antony transcends ordinary mortal experience? Is Caesar a pompous and narrow-minded man, or is he the best leader for Rome at this historical moment? Perhaps the answer to all these questions is "yes." Maybe choosing between different views of characters—or between conflicting assessments of the people we meet in our own lives—is a mistake. The play might be suggesting that it is better to embrace these contradictions rather than condemn them.

We often claim to "know" ourselves or our friends and acquaintances. But is this truly possible? We form opinions about people we know only by reputation—individuals whose actions and personalities are reported to us by others. Do we ever question the reliability of these reports? Are modern intermediaries any more trustworthy than the various messengers in Antony and Cleopatra? Are the reports we receive biased or objective? Are they current or outdated? Do they offer a single perspective or a well-rounded view? Is an "eye-witness" account necessarily accurate or truthful? If one report contradicts another, which should we believe? Or should we doubt both?

The main characters in the play are all acutely aware of how they are viewed by others. Each one makes an effort, either deliberately or subconsciously, to shape their public persona. Antony employs grandiose language to magnify his accomplishments and his stature. Cleopatra is almost always acting for an audience, whether it's one person or an entire city. Caesar anticipates the role of modern public relations experts who guide politicians and celebrities. However, it isn't just the prominent figures who are concerned with their public image. Most of us would rather have our strengths highlighted and our weaknesses ignored. Many people alter their appearances, wear flattering clothing, and try to conceal the less appealing aspects of their personalities from the public eye. We might criticize the play's protagonists for their preoccupation with image and reputation, but perhaps we should consider whether the desire to influence how the world perceives us is a universal human trait.

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