[In the following essay, Gabriele discusses the themes of life and death in Buero Vallejo's En la ardiente oscuridad.]

Out of the very love one bears to life one should wish death to be free, deliberate, and a matter neither of chance or of surprise,

Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra

Numerous analyses have convincingly illustrated that the dramatic structure of Antonio Buero Vallejo's plays is often supported by otherwise non-dramatic elements which the playwright ingeniously incorporates into his works. In Las meninas and El sueño de la razón, for example, paintings not only serve the playwright in the development of theme and plot, but also help to structure the play.¹ In El concierto de San Ovidio, El tragaluz and La doble historia del doctor Valmy, Buero employs yet another fine art, in this case music, in such a way as to allow the aural element to contribute significantly to the dramatic make-up of each play.²

Buero's choice of supportive material logically complements the subject matter he treats. Such is the case of the paintings in Las meninas or the music in El concierto de San Ovidio. Contrarily, there are times when the playwright's choice is less obvious. This can be said of El tragaluz where Buero's primary concern is the depiction of social and economic immobility. Regarding this play, Eric Pennington has demonstrated perceptively that even a passing reference to music—an element that has no apparent bearing on the theme—may function as an integral part of the dramatic framework.³ Observations such as this are testimony to Buero's skill and craftsmanship as a playwright.

Critics have identified several symbolic modes that constitute fundamental elements of Buerian tragedy. I refer particularly to light, darkness, vision and blindness.⁴ A number of Hispanists have also noted that two levels of reality may be distinguished in Buero's theatre. One critic writes that “Buero Vallejo creates two levels of reality, the material and the spiritual”.⁵ Another, Robert Nicholas, in speaking of En la ardiente oscuridad, states that “in addition to the surface realism”, the play “features a psychological realism”⁶. Noteworthy as well is that symbolism functions as an element of the “psychological” or “spiritual” facet of the world which Buero creates on the stage. Nicholas further observes that in En la ardiente oscuridad “Buero's depiction of Ignacio's deepest psychological motives and needs is achieved … through the evocative force of symbolism.”⁷

Buero's second play, En la ardiente oscuridad (1950), concerns itself with human existence, as does the corpus of his work. The symbols of light and darkness, vision and blindness abound in the play and have been sufficiently, if not exhaustively, treated by critics. The importance of each element to the play's theme and setting is all too evident, the characters are blind and the action transpires in a school for the blind. It is not my intention in the foregoing paragraphs to reconsider these elements but rather to focus on the broader opposition of life and death that unfolds within the play.

The development of action in En la ardiente oscuridad is analogous in many respects to the transition from life to death. Throughout the play, we detect the gradual, yet unmistakable, advent of death in the descriptions of the setting and characters as well as in the dialogue. The presence of death is obvious when one compares the lush foliage described in the stage directions for the opening scene (“Las ramas de los copudos árboles que en él hay se abren tras la barandilla, cuajadas de frondoso follage, que da al ambiente una gozosa claridad submarina”)⁸ to the barren and lifeless scene at the beginning of Act II (“Los árboles del fondo muestran ahora el esqueleto de sus ramas, sólo aquí y allá moteadas de hojas amarillas. En el suelo de la terraza abundan las hojas secas, que el viento trae y lleva” [p. 51]) and the final, somber funeral-parlor-like setting of Act III (“Cerca de la radio, una mesa con una lámpara portátil apagada. Sillones, veladores. Encendida la luz central” [p. 931]). Equating blindness with death on one or more occasions also suggests a lifeless atmosphere. One of the students, Miguelín, is initially introduced as “un estudiante jovencito y vivaz, que lleva gafas oscuras, porque sabe por experiencia que su vivacidad es penosa cuando las personas que ven la contrastan con sus ojos muertos (p. 4).” In contrasting Miguelín's liveliness to his “dead eyes”, blindness becomes analogous to death.

The most comprehensive presentation of death is associated with the development of Ignacio's character. The correlation between Ignacio and death is first revealed in his mode of dress. Upon arriving at the Center we are told that he “viste de negro intemporalmente” (p. 9). Later, Elisa points out that Ignacio seems distant, cold and bitter. “Cuando estaba con nosotras”, she claims, “me pareció percibir una sensación de ahogo, una desazón y una molestia … Y cuando le di la mano se acentuó terriblemente. Una ano seca …” (p. 38). And on yet another occasion she describes him as a “Cristo martirizado” (p. 65). Ultimately, Ignacio's rebellious behavior is defined in terms of a principle of death. This occurs in a final scene with Carlos:

CARLOS: Yo te explicaré lo que pasa: Tienes el instinto de la muerte, Dices que quieres ver … ¡Lo qye quieres es morir!

IGNACIO: Quizá … Quizá. Pueda que la muerte sea la única forma de consequir la definitive visión …

CARLOS: O la oscuridad definitiva. Pero es igual. Morir es lo que buscas, y no lo sabes, Morir y hacer morir a los demás. Por eso debes marcharte. ¡Yo defiendo la vida! ¡La vida de todos nosotros, que tú amenazas! Porque quiero vivirla a fondo, cumplirla, aunque no sea pacífica ni feliz. Aunque sea dura y amarga. ¡Pero la vida sabe a algo, nos reclama! (Pausa breve.) Todos luchábamos por aquí … hasta que tu viniste. ¡Márchate!

(pp. 108–109)

Several critics, in considering Ignacio's character, have made mention of the deep-seated anguish and psychological motives of his words and actions.⁹ While his behavior may be attributed to his refusal to accept the school's illusion of normalcy, no effort has been made to consider Ignacio's intransigence in light of the principle of death he so staunchly upholds. In view of the correlation previously established between Ignacio and death, and recognizing that his only physical impairment is his blindness, I maintain that a closer analysis of the character's behavioral pattern reveals a specific psychological and attitudinal criterium most often associated with individuals faced with the inevitability of death.

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, in her study titled On Death and Dying discusses five different stages of behavior in terminally ill patients.¹⁰ The clinical data gathered by Kübler-Ross is useful in understanding Ignacio's personality in En la ardiente oscuridad. Characteristic of Ignacio's personality is the obstinate and abrasive behavior he displays at the beginning of the play, a behavior which eventually alienates him from the other students. Upon his arrival at the school Ignacio is quick to disapprove of the institution's norms. Refusing to adopt the routine familiar to the students, he criticizes the use of such words as invidente to refer to the students while openly proclaiming his blindness: “Dejadme, Yo … soy un pobre ciego” (p. 10).

When Carlos and Juana suggest that Ignacio give up his white cane he reproaches them vehemently, reiterating his unwillingness to conform to their superficial way of life: “No, no. Yo … soy algo torpe para andar sin él. Y no os molestéis tampoco en enseñarme el edificio. No lo aprendería” (p. 24).¹¹ And Andres' congenial invitation to join him in a cigarette meets with similar rebuke. “¿Para qué fumar?” replies Ignacio. “Para imitar a los videntes?” (p. 58). The reason for Ignacio's negative disposition is not clear, however. He himself suggests the defiance is more the result of a deep personal desire to see than a direct attack at the school's norms. “Aunque sé que es imposible, ¡ver! Aunque en este deseo se consuma estérilmente mi vida entera”, he exclaims, “¡quiero ver! No puedo conformarme. No debemos conformarnos. ¡Y menos sonreír! Y resignarse con vuestra estúpida alegría de ciegos, ¡nunca! Y aunque no haya mujer de corazón que sea capaz de acompañarme en mi calvario, marcharé solo, negándome a vivir resignado, ¡porque quiero ver!” (p. 50). Likening his non-conformity to intense mental anguish (“un calvario”) the image Ignacio invokes is one of suffering and solitude.

The first recognizable stage in the behavioral pattern of a terminally ill patient is known as “denial and isolation” which, according to Kübler-Ross, is “used by almost all patients, not only during the first stages of illness or following confrontation, but also later on from time to time.” Initial reaction to the hopeless prognosis of their condition often takes the form of obstinate behavior and a desire to be left alone. She explains that “denial is a temporary defense and will soon be replaced by partial acceptance.” It “functions as a buffer after unexpected shocking news, allows the patient to collect himself and, with time, mobilize other, less radical defenses” (pp. 35–36). In addition, Kübler-Ross records in her findings that “anxiety and fear of impending death” is in many cases overcome with the help of a therapist (p. 41).

Ignacio's stubbornness is accompanied by a volatile temperament as witnessed in frequent and unanticipated outbursts of anger. In Act I Juana's compassion and concern meet with unfounded animosity. When she suggests to Ignacio that what he needs is a good friend he can talk to about his problems he responds shouting “¡Calla! Todos tenéis el acierto de crisparme: ¡Y tú también! ¡Tú la primera!” (p. 44). Later in a scene with Carlos, Ignacio's anger surfaces once again with no seeming provocation from Carlos. Carlos proposes that Ignacio remain at the school and contribute to the deception in an effort to maintain stability within the institution. Ignacio reacts with explosive opposition and rage: “A mí no me interesa! Eate Centro está fundado sobre una mentira. ¡No discutiremos nada! No hay acuerdo posible entre tú y yo. Hablaré lo que quiera y no renunciaré a ninguna conquista que se me ponga en el camino. ¡A ninguna! (p. 80–81). Ignacio's impulsive nature is also exposed through numerous words and expressions such as furioso, sumido [Ignacio] en su amargura, violento, quizá al borde del llanto and accionando para él solo, con sus manos llenas de anhelo y violencia, used repeatedly to refer to him.

Kübler-Ross designates ‘anger’ as the second phase in the behavioral development of the terminally ill patient. Regarding this stage, she explains that it is difficult for others to cope with the patient's anger because the “anger is displaced in all directions and projected on to the environment at times almost at random” and “has originally nothing to do with the people who become the target of the anger” (pp. 44–46). The diagnosis is an appropriate, if not factual, evaluation of Ignacio's treatment of Juana.

Ignacio reveals symptoms comparable to those detected in the psychological development of terminally ill patients. Ignacio's recalcitrant behavior and sudden outbursts of anger correspond respectively to the first and second stages discussed by Kübler-Ross. Another parallel may be found in Ignacio's relationship with Juana. When Ignacio arrives at the school Don Pablo gives Juana advice for dealing with him. He explains to her that “hay que convencerle que es un ser útil y de que tiene abiertos todos los caminos, si se atreve. Es cierto que aquí tiene el ejemplo, pero hay que administrárselo con tacto, y al talento de ustedes … recomiendo … la creación de una camaradería verdadera, que le alegre el corazón … Los muchachos de esta tipo están hambrientos de cariño y alegría y no suelen rechazarlos cuando se saben romper sus murallas interiores” (p. 35). What Don Pablo prescribes has definite therapeutic overtones and in fact echoes Kübler-Ross' own words regarding the importance of a therapist whose primary goal is to help patients forget “reality for a while” and allow them to “function as creative” individuals (p. 41). In considering the congeniality, compassion and understanding that Juana shows Ignacio, we might very well consider her treatment of him as a form of therapy.

Ignacio's relationship with Juana illustrates yet another feature of the psychological behavior of terminally ill patients as diagnosed by Kübler-Ross. Stage three is considered a transitional stage and is referred to as “bargaining”. According to Kübler-Ross, this constitutes a period in the patient's confrontation with the idea of death in which he or she seeks to “postpone the inevitable” (p. 73). In Juana's initial meeting with Ignacio she pleads with him to remain at the school and accept the way of living it promotes. The scene has all the markings of a bargaining session:

IGNACIO: ¡Al diablo todas, y tú de capitana! ¡Quédate con tu alegría; con tu Carlos, muy bueno no, muy sabio … y completamente tonto, porque se cree alegre … Y como él, Miguelín, y don Pablo, y todos … ¡Todos! … ¡Ciegos! ¡Ciegos, y no invidentes, imbéciles!

JUANA: No sé qué decirte … Ni quiero mentirte tampoco … Pero respeta y agradece al menos üuestro buen deseo. ¡Quédate! Prueba …

IGNACIO: No.

JUANA: ¡Por favor! No puedes marcharte solo ahora, sería ascandaloso. Y yo … no acierto con las palabras. No sé cómo podría convencerta.

IGNACIO: No puedes convencerme.

JUANA: (Con las manos juntas, alterada.) No te vayas. Soy muy torpe, lo comprendo … Tú aciertas a darme la sensación de mi impotancia … Si te vas, todos sabrán que hablé contigo y no conseguí nada. ¡Quédate!

IGNACIO: ¡Vanidosa!

JUANA: (Condolida.) No es vanidad, Ignacio. ¿Quieres que te lo pida de rodillas?

IGNACIO: (Muy frío.) ¿Para qué de rodillas? Dicen que ese gesto causa mucha impresión a los videntes … Pero nosotros no lo vemos. No seas tonta; no hables de cosas que desconoces, no imites a los que viven de verdad. ¡Y ahórrame tu desagradable debilidad, por favor! (Gran pausa.) Ma quedo.

JUANA: ¡Gracias!

IGNACIO: ¿Gracias? Hacéis mal negocio.

(pp. 47–48)

Juana's pleading meets with the usual sarcasm and scorn. Though Ignacio ultimately decides to remain at the school, there is no noticeable change in his outlook or disposition.

The previously discussed points are by far the most visible features of Ignacio's behavior. Nevertheless there remain two less conspicuous aspects of his character to be discussed. As mentioned before, Kübler-Ross studies five distinct stages in the behavioral pattern of terminally ill patients. The fourth and fifth stages are termed depression and acceptance respectively, Kübler-Ross points out that “encouragements and reassurances are not meaningful” during stage four and that the “patient should not be encouraged to look at the sunny side of things, as this would mean that he should not contemplate his impending death”, concluding that “it would be contraindicated to tall him not to be sad” (p. 77). Furthermore, she observes that the patient is noticeably less vocal about his opposition and characteristically he or she will display signs of melancholy which are indicative of phase five: “acceptance”.

By the final phase “the patient will have been able to express his previous feelings, his envy, … his anger … and will contemplate his coming end with a certain degree of quiet expectation.” He will be tired … he will have a need to doze off or to sleep often …” Nevertheless, “this is not a sleep of avoidance … it is not a resigned and hopeless ‘giving up’, a sense of ‘what's the use’ or ‘I just cannot fight any longer’ (p. 99). It is, on the other hand, a period of “void of feelings” in which “the patient has found some peace and acceptance” recognizing that the “struggle is over” (p. 100).

Several points of behavior pertaining to stages four and five coincide with Ignacio's emotional stage as witnessed toward the end of the play. Unlike the violent outbursts at the beginning of the play, in Act II there are moments when Ignacio reiterates his opposition while maintaining total composure. He tells Carlos, “No intento nada. Me limito a ser sincero, y ese contagio de que me hablas no as nada más que el despertar de la sinceridad de cada cual. Me parece muy conveniente, porqua aquí había muy poca. ¿Quieres decirme, en cambio, qué derecho te asiste para recomendar constantemente la alegría, el optimismo y todas esas zarandajas?” (p. 79).

The stage directions are equally indicative of Ignacio's vanishing determinism. At the end of Act II we read that “Ignacio queda solo. Silba, melancólicamente, unas notas del adagio del ‘Claro de luna’. A poco apoya las manos en el bastón y reclina la cabeza” (p. 81). His behavior begins to show definite signs of resignation and acceptance. In his final confrontation with Carlos, Ignacio intimates that death is the ultimate solution to his dilemma (“puede ser que la muerte sea la única forma de conseguir la definitiva visión …” [p. 108]) which in turn suggests his acceptance of death. The final description of Ignacio and the last words he speaks before his death reveal a note of serenity and composure previously undetected: “(Cansado.) No díacutamos más. Y dispensa mis ironías. No me agradan, pero tú me provocas demasiado. Lo siento. … La noche está muy agradable y quiero cansarme un poco antes de dormir. (Serio.) Las maravillosas estrellas verterán su luz para mi aunque no las vea” (p. 111).

For many critics, the ultimate message of En la ardiente oscuridad is one of hope. This provides yet another parallel between Ignacio's personality and the data compiled by Kübler-Ross. I have shown that it is possible to trace the psychological development of Ignacio's behavior in light of the five different stages discussed by Kübler-Ross in her study on terminally ill patients. These phases may be viewed as a series of defense mechanisms used by the patient when faced with tragic news of the inevitable and may last for different periods or exist side by side. According to Kübler-Ross, “the one thing that usually persists through all these stages is hope” which maintains the patient “through days, weeks or months of suffering” (pp. 122–123).

Whether on a human or metaphysical plane, the idea of hope is an essential element within the organic make-up of Buerian tragedy in that it plays a crucial role with regard to the protagonists on his road to awareness. Buero sees hope as a constant in man's life. Man, as a spiritual being, cannot exist without hope.¹² Though failure may be imminent in searching for his authentic existence, the Buerian protagonist is sustained in his struggle by hope. Ignacio, rebelling against his irreparable physical condition, is driven throughout the play by his “burning desire” to see (hope). The most lucid symbol of this hope are stars glittering in the distant heavens to which Ignacio draws our attention shortly before dying (p. 111).

For Buero Vallejo, tragic is always positive. Through it he seeks to ennoble the individual.¹³ In this particular play, the tragic conflict and the cathartic experience are inextricably linked to Ignacio's and Carlos' antagonistic relationship.¹⁴ Here again, close scrutiny of the behavioral pattern of the character can be helpful in tracing the development of the playwright's tragic vision. To this end let us now consider briefly certain facts concerning Carlos' personality in the light of what we have already disclosed with regard to Ignacio.

Though initially Ignacio's most stalwart opponent, descriptions of Carlos as early as Act I reflect a behavioral pattern similar to the one displayed by Ignacio. Shortly before the end of Act I, references to Carlos suggested that his self-assurance was faltering, yet he continued to reveal elements of denial and isolation (“Carlos pierde su instintiva seguridad; se siente extrañamente solo. Ciego, … [p. 50]). This initial allusion to insecurity eventually becomes an open admission of the undeniable limitations of the students in the school. Where once Carlos denied the reality of the situation within the institution, he soon dispels any and all illusions declaring, “¡Basta! Luz, visión … Palabras vacías. ¡Nosotros estamos ciegos!” (p. 106). We are made aware of changes in Carlos' emotional state as the play progresses. Worlds and expressions such as, “en el colmo de la desesperación”, “violento”, and “con rabia contenida”, used more frequently to refer to Carlos, indicate a change in his attitudes. In other instances we detect signs of depression. One of the final stage directions reads, “él [Carlos] melancólico y ella [Juana] vibrando” (p. 129). In the final moments of the play when Doña Pepita makes an effort to elicit a confession from Carlos regarding Ignacio's death he displays inordinate hostility toward her. Once again he openly refutes the illusion he originally nurtured, declaring that “sight does not exist” in the school:

DORA PEPITA: (Lívida.) Es usted cruel … No lo seré yo tanto. Porque, hace media hora, yo trabajaba aquí, y pudo ocurrirseme levantarme para mirar por el ventanal. No le hice. Acaso, de hacerlo, habría visto a alguién que subía las escaleras del tobogán cargado con el cuerpo de Ignacio … ¡Ignacio, desvanecido o quizá ya muerto! (Pausa.) Luego, desde arriba, se precipita el cuerpo …, sin temer la precaución de pensar en los ojos de los demás. Siempre olvidamos la vista ajena. Sólo Ignacio pensaba en ella. (Pausa.) Pero yo no vi nada, porque me no levanté. (Aguarda, espiando su rostro.)

CARLOS: ¡No, no vio nada! Y aunque se hubiese levantado y hubiese creído ver … (Con infinito desprecio.) ¡Qué es la vista? ¿Cómo se atreve a invocar el testimonio de sus ojos? ¡Sus ojos! ¡Bah!

DORA PEPITA: (Llorosa.) Hijo mío, no es bueno ser tan duro.

CARLOS: ¡Déjeme! ¡Y no intenta vencerme con sus repugnantes argucias femenías! (p. 135).

The scene serves to demonstrate that Carlos' view of reality has been drastically altered. It is now Carlos who attacks outright the school's illusion of normalcy. As such this represents an essential phase in the realization of the cathartic experience. Moreover, Doña Pepita's display of concern and Carlos' unfounded hostility recall similar moments between Ignacio y Juana designated the “bargaining” phase in accordance with Kübler-Ross' data. It is, however, in the closing lines of the play where it is most evident that the tragic conflict and Ignacio's resulting death has moved Carlos to resignation and acceptance. Alone with Ignacio's lifeless body and “en la suprema amargura de su soledad irremediable”, Carlos utters words that echo sentiments expressed by Ignacio before his own death: “… Y ahora están brillando las estrellas con todo su esplendor, y los videntes gozan de su presencia maravillosa. Esos mundos lejanísimos están ahí, tras los cristales … (Sus [Carlos'] manos como las alas de un pájaro herido, tiemblan y repiquetean contra la carcel misteriosa del cristal.) ¡Al alcance de nuestra vida! …, si la tuviéramos …” (p. 137).

One of the overriding themes of Buero's theatre is man's unwillingness to confront the reality of his situation. The various stages of development in Ignacio's (and Carlos', though to a lesser extent) behavior as witnessed in En la ardiente oscuridad is demonstrative of the transition from denial of the inevitable to acceptance, of life to death. Hence a study of Ignacio's character in light of the data put forth by Kübler-Ross is altogether appropriate. Ignacio is beset by profound internal strife which stems from the opposition of a “burning desire” to see and the tragic realization that such a wish will never become reality. It is this conflict that leads Ignacio to his death or, as he puts it, that “no me deja vivir” (p. 49). The same may be said of Carlos whose behavior develops in a pattern similar to Ignacio's, though less explicitly so. While Carlos insists on the use of “invidente” instead of “ciego” and the notion that the norms must be respected for the sake of stability in the school, his desire to see is no less compelling. Ignacio's resistance to the school's illusion of normalcy is as strong as Carlos' defense of it. As so many critics have indicated, both speak of sight: one symbolic, the other physical. Each challenges the other's view of reality. Neither is willfully compromising. When Ignacio is removed from the scene, the process of awareness is transferred to Carlos and so, too, is the tragic vision.

It is a well-known fact that Buero is a careful researcher of his subject matter. Though undoubtedly familiar with the behavior of individuals blind since birth, I would hesitate to speculate on whether Buero availed himself of attitudinal studies regarding patients faced with the hopeless prognosis of a terminal illness while composing En la ardiente oscuridad. One fact does remain. In demonstrating that Ignacio's character follows a particular developmental pattern, it has been my intention to elaborate further on Buero's unique skill in conveying the various dimensions of the tragic experience through the plight of the tragic hero.

Notes

1. Regarding the importance of visual imagery in Buero's works, see Ida Molina, “Authority versus Truth in Las meninas and Galileo”, HISPANÓFILA, 57 (1976), pp. 61–64; Fermín de Urmenta, “Antonio Buero Vallejo o el teatro pictórico moderno”, Revista de Ideas Estéticas, 28, 112 (1970), pp. 301–03; and David K. Herzberger, “The Painterly Vision of Buero Vallejo's El sueno de la razón”, SYMPOSIUM, 39, 2 (1985), pp. 99–103.

2. See particularly Eric Pennington, “The Role of Music in El concierto de San Ovidio”, ROMANCE NOTES, 26, 1 (1985), pp. 18–21, and Eric Pennington, “La doble historia del doctor Valmy: A View from the Feminine”, SYMPOSIUM, 40, 2 (1986), pp. 131–139.

3. See Eric Pennington. “El misterio de Elche in El tragaluz”, Cuadernos de ALDEUU, 1, 1 (1983), pp. 83–89.

4. Worthy of mention in this regard is Martha T. Halsey's ongoing treatment of the importance of these elements in Buero's theatre. See, for example, the following: “‘Light’ and ‘Darkness’ as Dramatic Symbols in Two Tragedies of Buero Vallejo”, HISPANIA, 50, 1 (1967), pp. 63–68: “More on ‘Light’ in the Tragedies of Buero”, ROMANCE NOTES, 11, 1 (1969), pp. 17–21; and Antonio Buero Vallejo (Boston: Twayne Publishing, 1973), pp. 40–42 and 149–150.

5. David Ling, “Symbols of Hope in Three Plays of Buero Vallejo”, ROMANCE NOTES, 13, 3 (1972), p. 419.

6. Robert L. Nicholas, The Tragic Stages of Antonio Buero Vallejo. Estudios de Hispanófila. (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina, 1972), p. 27.

7. Ibid., p. 29.

8. Antonio Buero Vallejo, En la ardiente oscuridad. Ed. Samuel A. Wofsy (New York: Scribner's, 1954), p. 1. All subsequent references are based on this edition and will be cited parenthetically in the study.

9. See, for example, Halsey, Antonio Buero Vallejo, p. 139; Nicholas, p. 29; and Reed Anderson, “Tragic Conflict and Synthesis in Buero Vallejo's En la ardiente oscuridad”, SYMPOSIUM, 29. 1–2, (1972), pp. 3–4.

10. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, On Death and Dying (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1969. Subsequent references are to this work and will be cited parenthetically in the study.

11. It is curious to note that Reed Anderson in his article (cited in note 10) uses the term “therapy” when referring to this particular scene between Don Pablo y Juana. He writes that “he [Don Pablo] proposes a therapy designed to ensure his [Ignacio's] happiness by bringing him into conformity with the school's norms of ethics and conduct” (p. 4).

12. See Halsey's excellent discussion of hope in Buerian tragedy in Antonio Buero Vallejo, 29–32. Also, see the playwright's own ideas as expressed in “La tragedia”, in El teatro: enciclopedia del arte escénico. (Barcelona: Editorial Noguer, 1958), pp. 63–87.

13. In addition to his essay “La tragedia” (cited in note 11), Buero has expressed his views on the concept of tragedy at length in “Sobre la tragedia”, in Entretiens sur les Lettres et les Arts (Rodez, France), No. 22 (1963), pp. 52–61.

14. Although Ignacio may be considered the main character of the play, several critics have stated that they consider Carlos' role to be indispensable to the effective development of Buero's tragic vision, among them Anderson (see note No 10), p. 10; Francisco Ruia Ramón, Historia del reatro español, Siglo XX (Madrid, Cátedra, 1975), p. 347; and Carmen González-Goboz Dávila, Antonio Buero Vallejo. El hombre y su obra (Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 1979), p. 74.