Historical Context
Ghana, a nation in Western Africa, is composed of various ethnic groups. Nearly forty percent of the population are Akin peoples, but other significant groups include the Ewe, Ga-Adangme, Hausa, and Mole-Dagbani. Each ethnic group has its own language, customs, and traditions, although some overlap exists. Over fifty native languages are spoken in the region, but about a quarter of the population speaks English, the official language used by the government.
By 1970, Ghana faced political instability, partly due to the diverse interests of these groups. The latter half of the twentieth century saw numerous political challenges. Until 1957, Ghana, then known as the Gold Coast, was a British colony. The country achieved independence largely due to the efforts of Kwame Nkrumah.
Nkrumah, a native of the Gold Coast, received higher education in the United States. Starting in 1947, he began advocating for his homeland's independence. He championed self-governance for the Gold Coast through the political party he co-founded, the Convention People's Party (CPP). Upon gaining independence, Nkrumah was appointed prime minister and later became president when Ghana transitioned to a republic, with the CPP as the ruling party. Ghana thus became the first African country south of the Sahara to achieve independence in this manner.
As a leader, Nkrumah made some improvements to Ghana's health and education systems. However, he also directed funds towards costly projects like a stadium instead of enhancing the nation's economic infrastructure. By the time a coalition of army and police officers conducted a coup d'etat in early 1966, Nkrumah had essentially become a dictator. He was in China at the time of the coup and died in exile in 1972.
The coup leaders established the National Liberation Council, which drafted a new constitution for Ghana. The Council was disbanded in October 1969 when new elections were held, restoring democracy. The Progress Party, led by Prime Minister Kofi Busia, assumed power, and Edward Akufo-Addo was elected president in 1970. However, the Progress Party's tenure was brief due to ongoing political instability. The party failed to represent all of Ghana's ethnic groups. In 1972, another coup d'etat was orchestrated by army officer Ignatius K. Acheampong.
By 1970, Ghana struggled with prolonged economic instability while attempting to modernize. The country's primary export, cacao—used to make chocolate—accounted for seventy percent of its total exports. Under the Progress Party regime, cacao prices plummeted, severely impacting Ghana's rural population. Although Ghana was becoming more urbanized, only about a third of the population resided in cities. Most rural inhabitants worked as farmers in some capacity. A significant portion of the population lived in poverty. Although wealth was no longer linked to lineage, and education and better jobs were available in cities, the weak economy affected everyone.
The role of women was gradually evolving. Women were still primarily viewed as childbearers. Having children was important for women in both urban and rural areas, though rural women typically had more children than their urban counterparts. Educated and economically independent women generally had fewer children. Education had become more widespread and accessible. A 1960 law mandated that all children attend elementary school until the age of twelve. However, some parents were hesitant to educate their daughters, fearing it might diminish their marriage prospects.
Although many girls dropped out, some went on to teach at the university level, like Aidoo. By 1970, Ghana was unmistakably a nation in transition.
Style and Technique
Setting
Anowa is a drama set in Ghana during the 1870s. The play unfolds in three distinct locations. In the first phase, the action is centered in the village of Yebi, mainly at the cottage of Badua and Osam. Phase two briefly returns to this...
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cottage but primarily takes place on a coastal highway several years later. The final phase is set a few years after that in Oguaa, at Kofi Ako's grand house, built from his trading wealth. Each setting inAnowa has a domestic aspect, highlighting the significance of marital and familial relationships.
Greek Chorus
The prologue, as well as the beginning and end of nearly every phase, features commentary from The-Mouth-That-Eats-Salt-And-Pepper, functioning like a Greek Chorus. This duo, an Old Man and an Old Woman, represents societal opinion. They set the scene, provide background on the main characters and conflicts, and offer their perspectives as the story progresses. The Old Man is somewhat sympathetic to Anowa and her ways, while the Old Woman is highly critical, even accusing Anowa of being a witch. Though not deeply developed as characters, they serve as the play's moral compass, reflecting contrasting societal views, possibly between genders, on Anowa and her choices.
Monologue
Anowa features many lengthy monologues that reveal character motivations and development. The Old Man opens the play with a monologue describing the local geography, gods, and conflicts, and introduces Kofi and Anowa, hinting at their basic traits. At the end of phase two, he sympathizes with Anowa's anti-slavery stance in another monologue. The Old Woman, in the same section, expresses hope that Kofi Ako will assert control over Anowa. Earlier in phase two, after Anowa falls asleep and Kofi Ako places her in a leafy bed, he shares his conflicted feelings about her, noting that people often mistake Anowa for his sister due to her hard work. He resolves to change their dynamic, to make her more like a wife and himself more like a husband. In phase three, Anowa has several monologues where she recounts a childhood incident and reflects on her childlessness. These monologues add depth to the characters in Anowa.
Lighting/Transitions
In Anowa, Aidoo uses lighting transitions to signal shifts between smaller scenes within each of the play's three phases. These transitions involve the lights dimming and then brightening again, indicating the passage of time. In the first phase, the time lapse is relatively brief but unspecified. For instance, after Anowa declares her intention to marry Kofi Ako, causing familial tension, a transition occurs, and the next scene begins with Anowa preparing to leave with Kofi Ako.
In the second phase, the transitions indicate longer time lapses and changes in location. This phase starts by the highway with a conversation about buying slaves. After a transition, the scene shifts back to Badua and Osam's cottage, where they discuss Kofi Ako's newfound wealth and the number of slaves he owns. They are more concerned about their daughter's inability to conceive. Following another lighting transition, the scene returns to Kofi Ako, Anowa, and their new slaves, with an unspecified amount of time having passed.
Phase three contains only two transitions, both occurring after the main action has concluded. Following the confrontation between Kofi Ako and Anowa, the lights go down, leading to a funeral scene for the couple. After another blackout, the Old Man and Woman return to deliver their final remarks. These transitions help maintain the play's continuity and simplify its staging.
Literary Heritage
Much like other African nations, each ethnic group in Ghana has a rich tradition of oral storytelling, encompassing myths and legends about their deities and the creation of the universe. Folktales, such as the one Aidoo based Anowa on, play a crucial role in both entertainment and the transmission of values. One specific type of folktale is the "dilemma tale," which presents social and moral issues in a way that encourages discussion. In many respects, Anowa is a modern adaptation of a dilemma tale.
While oral performance is a key aspect of Ghanaian folktales, the country also has a more contemporary theatrical tradition. Starting in the late nineteenth century, commercial theater shows and troupes traveled throughout Ghana, gaining prominence after World War II. Known as "concert parties," these troupes, often consisting of three or more comedic actors, used stock characters to address social and familial issues while entertaining their audiences. Predominantly a rural phenomenon, these concert parties were somewhat akin to vaudeville shows in the United States during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, both in form and, to some extent, content.
Compare and Contrast
1870s: Much of present-day Ghana is governed as a British colony, with little input from the local populace. Efforts are made to protect trade routes in the interior regions.
1970: Ghana experiences political instability, just three years after a coup ousted President Nkrumah.
Today: Ghana enjoys greater political stability under the long-term leadership of Jerry Rawlings. Although there are allegations of government corruption, Rawlings remains largely untainted.
1870s: The coastal regions of what will become Ghana are the most developed due to their role in trade. Urbanization is just beginning.
1970: Approximately twenty-eight percent of the population resides in urban areas, primarily along the coast.
Today: Over one-third of Ghanaians live in urban environments.
1870s: Women mainly bear children, but they also engage in farming and selling fish and produce.
1970: With more educational opportunities for women, job prospects also increase, mostly in urban areas. Many in rural regions continue to work as farmers and sellers of agricultural products.
Today: More women are becoming educated and securing jobs in urban areas, which continue to attract those seeking better economic prospects.
1870s: Although missionaries convert some to Christianity, the majority of Ghanaians adhere to traditional local religions.
1970: Over half the population identifies as Christian.
Today: Approximately 64.1 percent of Ghanaians are Christian, while 17.6 percent maintain traditional beliefs.
Bibliography
Sources
Aidoo, Ama Ata, Anowa, Longman Group, 1970.
Eke, Maureen N., "Diasporic Ruptures and (Re)Membering History: Africa as Home and Exile in Anowa and The Dilemma of a Ghost," in Emerging Perspectives on Ama Ata Aidoo, Africa World Press, 1999, p. 654.
Hill-Lubin, Mildred A., "Ama Ata Aidoo and the African Diaspora: Things 'All Good Men and Women Try to Forget,' but I Will Not Let Them," in Emerging Perspectives on Ama Ata Aidoo, Africa World Press, 1999, p. 49.
Horne, Naana Banyiwa, "The Politics of Mothering: Multiple Subjectivity and Gendered Discourse in Aidoo's Plays," in Emerging Perspectives on Ama Ata Aidoo, Africa World Press, 1999, p. 319.
Jones, Eldred Durosimi, review of Anowa, in African Literature Today, 1976, p. 143.
Karpf, Anne, "The Arrival of Aidoo," in The Guardian, September 8, 1995, p. T21.
Kingsley, Louise, review of Anowa, in The Independent, April 6, 1991, p. 24.
Odamtten, Vincent O., The Art of Ama Ata Aidoo: Polylectics and Reading against Neocolonialism, University Press of Florida, 1994, pp. 43, 46.
Phillips, Maggi, "Engaging Dreams: Alternative Perspectives on Flora Nwapa, Buchi Emecheta, Ama Ata Aidoo, Bessie Head, and Tsitsi Dangarembga's Writing," in Research in African Literatures, Winter, 1994, p. 89.
Rutherford, Malcolm, review of Anowa, in Financial Times, April 9, 1991, p. 23.
Further Reading
Hemming, Sarah, "Word of Mouth," in The Independent, April 3, 1991, p. 14. This article, partly an interview with Aidoo, compares Anowa with Aidoo's 1991 novel Changes.
McGregor, Maxine, "Ama Ata Aidoo," in African Writers Talking: A Collection of Radio Interviews, Cosmo Pieterse and Dennis Duerden, editors, Africana Publishing Corp., 1972, pp. 18-27. In this interview, Aidoo discusses her plays, theater in Ghana, and other writing-related topics.
Needham, Anuradha Dingwaney, "An Interview with Ama Ata Aidoo," in The
Massachusetts Review, Spring, 1995.
In this interview, Aidoo talks about feminism, nationalism, and her
writing.
Uzoamaka, Ada, and Wilentz Azodo, Gay, eds., Emerging Perspectives on Ama Ata Aidoo, Africa World Press, 1999. This collection of critical essays covers the entirety of Aidoo's work, including several focused on Anowa.
