the policies of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Faced with America's immense military power and economic boom under Reagan, Gorbachev opted to radically reform Russian society. He aimed to revitalize the Soviet economy throughperestroika, a Russian term meaning "restructuring," and introduced glasnost, or "openness," into political and cultural affairs. Within a few years, the global spread of communism, once labeled by Reagan as the "Evil Empire," began to reverse. The Berlin Wall, a longstanding symbol of the divide between the communist East and the capitalist West, was dramatically dismantled in 1989. Two years later, in December 1991, the Soviet Union's communist regime collapsed, marking the end of the Cold War.

AIDS in America

The other "war" central to Angels in America was a domestic battle waged between the marginalized, frightened homosexual community and the largely heterosexual American populace. The discovery of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) in 1981 ignited a fervent struggle over rights, recognition, and morality in the United States.

Americans have consistently shown mixed feelings about homosexuals in their society. It wasn't until 1973 that the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders. Meanwhile, the U.S. military continues to enforce its "don't ask, don't tell" policy regarding gays in the armed forces. At one point, AIDS was used by some as a rationale for antigay sentiments, with extreme claims suggesting the disease was a divine curse meant to eliminate homosexuality. In the early 1980s, AIDS was labeled the "gay plague," despite the fact that other groups, including Haitians, drug addicts, and hemophiliacs, also experienced the disease's severe symptoms. The government, particularly President Reagan, appeared indifferent to the plight of gay Americans. It wasn't until early 1983, eighteen months after AIDS was declared an epidemic in the U.S., that serious research began at the National Institutes of Health. Gay rights activists compared their treatment by the U.S. government to the persecution of Jews in Nazi Germany during the Holocaust.

Among the numerous significant themes in Angels in America, Kushner returns to this historical and timely crisis at the conclusion of the epic. Prior ends the play's Epilogue with a direct address to the audience, stating, "This disease will be the end of many of us, but not nearly all, and the dead will be commemorated and will struggle on with the living, and we are not going away." In numerous ways, the struggle that began for homosexuals in America with the AIDS crisis in the 1980s shaped the relationship between gay and straight America in the following decades.

Epic Theatre

Angels in America employs an epic narrative structure. Traditionally, the term "epic" referred to tales like Homer's Odyssey and Iliad: stories that span extensive periods, sometimes months or even years; feature various locations, from intimate rooms to expansive forests and battlefields; follow numerous characters across multiple storylines; and alternate between brief and extended scenes, presenting a series of crises rather than a singular climactic moment near the conclusion. Many of Shakespeare's works adhere to the epic tradition. Modern examples include Bertolt Brecht's plays, such as Mother Courage and Her Children, and Robert Schenkkan's Kentucky Cycle, a six-hour, nine-play epic covering two centuries in the lives of three Eastern Kentucky families.

Kushner's ambitious project, Angels in America, is divided into two full-length plays: Millennium Approaches and Perestroika. Together, they cover a span of more than four years, from October 1985 to February 1990. The settings range from living rooms, offices, and hospital wards to the streets of New York City, Antarctica, and even Heaven.

Scenes in Angels in America vary in length and often overlap, occurring on stage simultaneously. This creates two essential qualities for epic plots: juxtaposition and contrast. In climactic plots, the story progresses through cause-and-effect, where one scene's action influences the next. In epic plots, however, the action can alternate between the main plot and subplots, with minimal connection between them. Placing two seemingly unrelated scenes next to each other results in a juxtaposition of actions, characters, and ideas, often producing a contrast that adds depth to the play.

For instance, Act II, Scene 9 of Millennium Approaches is a split scene featuring Joe and Harper at home, and Prior and Louis in Prior's hospital room. Juxtaposing these scenes highlights each character's abandonment of a loved one. Joe, having drunkenly confessed his homosexuality to his mother over the phone, now seeks an escape from his wife, who desperately needs him. Conversely, Louis still loves Prior but cannot bear living with his illness. Performing these scenes simultaneously enhances the confusion and anguish each man feels, making it challenging to dismiss their actions as merely heartless. Similar juxtapositions are found throughout the play.

Perhaps most significantly, the overall impact of an epic plot is cumulative rather than catastrophic. In climactic works like Sophocles's Oedipus Rex or the plays of Henrik Ibsen (A Doll's House) and Arthur Miller (Death of a Salesman), events are condensed and occur close to the conclusion, leading to an inevitable explosive confrontation. Epic plots, however, allow events, circumstances, and emotions to build up gradually, creating an overwhelming experience for both characters and audience. Rarely does a single event—such as a character’s poor decision or an antagonist’s evil action—determine the outcome. Consequently, Angels in America concludes with uncertainty. The ultimate fate of the characters remains unknown, but the accumulated events and emotions give the play's themes—progress, identity, community, and acceptance—a sense of gravity and significance.

Political Theatre

Theatre has long served as a platform for political ideas and agendas. In America, during the depression-era 1930s, the Federal Theatre Project produced "Living Newspapers," short plays that combined factual data with emotional, often melodramatic, vignettes. These plays typically addressed social issues, such as urban slum housing or the struggles of American farmers. In the radical 1960s, several black theatre groups, including Imamu Amiri Baraka's (formerly LeRoi Jones) Spirit House and the Negro Ensemble Company, emerged with the aim of producing plays by and for African Americans, often with anti-white themes. Regardless of the cause, political theatre is frequently driven by the themes or ideas within the play as much as by the plot or characters.

Kushner continues the tradition of significant political dramas, drawing inspiration primarily from Bertolt Brecht, the German playwright known for creating a distinctive style of Epic Theatre. Brecht's theories on Epic Theatre incorporate many elements of epic plot structure but also emphasize a strong political dimension; he was a committed communist and vehemently anti-war. His plays were didactic, meaning he aimed to teach his audiences something, often presenting his lessons in a direct and forceful manner. Additionally, Brecht wanted his audiences to be active participants, thinking critically while watching his plays rather than becoming emotionally absorbed as passive onlookers. To achieve this, he sought to "alienate" his audiences by revealing theatrical devices (lighting, scene changes, etc.). He also interrupted the action of his plays with disruptive elements such as ironic songs and placards explaining upcoming plot points, ensuring that spectators continually re-evaluated characters and their actions. Through this method, Brecht believed audiences would better grasp and appreciate the political messages of the play.

Much like Brecht, Kushner aims for a highly theatrical presentation that avoids creating a full illusion. He advises using minimal scenery for Angels in America—given the frequent and rapid changes in location, realistic sets would be too cumbersome. Additionally, Kushner recommends that scene transitions be performed swiftly and visibly to the audience (without blackouts), utilizing both stagehands and actors, a technique reminiscent of Brecht. Regarding the play's magical elements, such as the Angel's appearance, the ghosts, Mr. Lies, and other fantastical events, the playwright notes in his introduction, "It's OK if the wires show, and maybe it's good that they do, but the magic should at the same time be thoroughly amazing."

Kushner is also highly political and aims for his audiences to learn something, though he employs more subtle expression than Brecht. In Kushner's play, strong political themes are intricately woven into the plot and subplots, leaving the audience with an impression rather than a blatant message. Controversial ideas are typically presented from multiple perspectives, allowing the audience to form their own conclusions. While Brecht was a staunch advocate of communism and often delivered overt pacifist rhetoric, Kushner allows his characters and their philosophies to speak independently.

The concept of the American Dream, for instance, is explored from various viewpoints, none of which are labeled as "correct:" Roy and Martin see the American Dream in the quest for political power; Joe holds an idealistic, perhaps naive, vision of America as a land of freedom, opportunity, and justice for all; Belize and Louis, marginalized by mainstream society for their openly gay lifestyles, view America as oppressive and hypocritical, yet they persist in their fight for rights and recognition. By presenting political ideas in this multifaceted manner, Kushner initiates a political dialogue with his audiences, rather than merely delivering messages to them.

1980s: In 1981, the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, Georgia, identifies a syndrome initially termed "Gay-Related Immune Deficiency." By 1982, the illness is renamed AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). By the close of 1985, AIDS has spread to at least fifty-one countries. In 1988, the United States is the last major Western industrialized nation to initiate a coordinated education campaign. By the end of the decade, it is estimated that 1 million people worldwide have contracted AIDS. In the United States, nearly 150,000 cases have been diagnosed, and almost 90,000 individuals have died.

Today: Approximately 33.4 million people worldwide are living with AIDS. In some of the hardest-hit countries, such as Zimbabwe and Tanzania, over 10 percent of the adult population may be infected. In developed countries, extensive education and disease prevention campaigns, along with new experimental drugs, have slowed or even reversed the spread of AIDS. The first successful combination drug therapy for AIDS treatment begins in the United States in 1992; however, a cure remains elusive. Education and disease prevention counseling are provided in public schools, and national advertising campaigns promote safe sex or abstinence. In the United States, the number of new diagnoses and deaths from AIDS has been rapidly declining since 1993. In 1994, over 48,000 people die from AIDS-related illnesses, but by 1997, that number falls to just over 14,000.

1980s: Republicans hold the Executive Office from 1980 to 1992. They also control the Senate, occupying just over half the seats. The House of Representatives remains predominantly Democratic, as it has been since the end of World War II.

Today: Democratic President Bill Clinton, despite numerous challenges, is elected to two terms starting in 1992. Though Democrats briefly gain a Senate majority from 1987 to 1994, the Republicans rally and take control of the entire Congress in 1995.

1980s: The "bull market" of the 1980s begins on August 17, 1982, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average jumps 38.81 points to 831.24, marking the largest one-day gain in the Dow's hundred-year history. Over the following five years, the value of most stocks nearly triples as the market soars.

Today: Since 1990, the stock market has been climbing steadily, reaching a new record of 9337.97 points on July 17, 1998. At these heights, daily fluctuations of hundreds of points are not uncommon. More Americans than ever before are experiencing the thrilling, yet risky, world of stock investing.

In Tony Kushner's "Angels in America," settings are more than mere backdrops; they are dynamic environments that shape and reflect the play's exploration of identity, politics, and spirituality. Central to this exploration is New York City, a bustling metropolis that serves as the primary stage for the unfolding drama. The city's real locations, such as the East Village, the Lower East Side, the South Bronx, and Brooklyn Heights, create a vibrant tapestry that mirrors the complex lives of its characters.

Among these locales, Bethesda Fountain in Central Park stands out as a particularly significant setting. Here, the statue of the Bethesda Angel presides over a gathering place where New Yorkers congregate to unwind and connect. This iconic site becomes symbolic of the play’s thematic focus on renewal and redemption, suggesting that spiritual forces are actively shaping new beginnings for the characters.

In stark contrast to the openness of Central Park are the confining interiors of hospital rooms, where the personal battles of the characters unfold. These rooms belong to Prior Walter and Roy Cohn, both men grappling with AIDS. The hospital spaces transcend their physical boundaries, morphing into surreal realms of hallucination and prophecy. It is within these confines that Prior encounters an angel, who crashes through to anoint him as a prophet, charging him with a transformative mission.

Beyond the tangible world of New York, the play ventures into otherworldly realms, including an imagined Antarctica, ethereal planes of existence, and various iterations of the afterlife. These supernatural landscapes range from desolate hells to celestial gatherings of anxious angels, each scene contributing to the narrative tension regarding humanity’s fate.

Meanwhile, Salt Lake City introduces a contrasting dimension, representing the heart of the Mormon faith and embodying a mainstream conservative American ethos. The characters hailing from this locale bring with them perspectives that clash and converse with the more liberal, diverse milieu of New York City, enhancing the play’s exploration of American identity and belief.

Despite numerous efforts to adapt Angels in America into a film over the years, the project is still in the development phase. Various directors, such as Robert Altman, have been linked to the project at different times.

SOURCES

Barnes, Clive. Review of Angels in America in the New York Post, November 24, 1993.

Benjamin, Walter. "Theses on the Philosophy of History" in Illuminations, edited by Hannah Arendt, translated by Harry Zohn, Schocken Books, 1969, pp. 257-58.

Brustein, Robert. Review of Angels in America in the New Republic, May 24, 1993, pp. 29-31.

Cohen, Norman J. ‘‘Wrestling with Angels’’ in Tony Kushner in Conversation, edited by Robert Vorlicky, University of Michigan Press, 1998, p. 220.

Gelb, Hal. Review of Angels in America in the Nation, February 22, 1993, pp. 246-48.

Gerard, Jeremy. Review of Angels in America in Variety, May 10, 1993, p. 243.

Jones, Adam Mars. "Tony Kushner at the Royal National Theatre of Great Britain" in Tony Kushner in Conversation, edited by Robert Vorlicky, University of Michigan Press, 1998, pp. 24-25.

Kushner, Tony. Angels in America, Part One: Millennium Approaches, Theatre Communications Group, 1992, p. 5.

Lahr, John. Review of Angels in America in the New Yorker, May 31, 1993.

Morehouse III, Ward. Review of Angels in America in the Christian Science Monitor, May 17, 1993, p. 12.

Simon, John. Review of Angels in America in New York, December 6, 1993, p. 130.

Stearns, David Patrick. Review of Angels in America in USA Today, May 5, 1993, p. 1D.

Szentgyorgyi, Tom. ‘‘Look Back—and Forward—in Anger’’ in Theatre Week, January 14-20, 1991, p. 16.

Winer, Linda. Review of Angels in America in New York Newsday, May 5, 1993.

FURTHER READING

Adelman, Deborah. The 'Children of Perestroika': Moscow Teenagers Talk about Their Lives and the Future, ME Sharpe, 1992.

Interviews with Moscow teenagers offering insights into their perspectives on the former Soviet Union, socialism versus capitalism, Western culture, and their expectations for their society's future post-Cold War.

Barlett, Donald L., and James B. Steele. America: What Went Wrong?, Andrews & McMeel, 1992.

A critical analysis of the 1980s, blaming corporate greed, governmental shortsightedness, and President Ronald Reagan's socio-economic policies for damaging the American Dream.

Brask, Per, editor. Essays on Kushner's Angels, Blizzard (Winnipeg), 1995.

A collection of early essays on Angels in America, published soon after the play's debut, examining the work from North American, European, and Australian viewpoints to assess Kushner's political drama's impact across the Western world.

Christie-Dever, Barbara. AIDS: Answers to Questions Kids Ask, Learning Works, 1996.

An informative Q&A approach to AIDS education for teenagers, featuring biographical sketches of Ryan White, Magic Johnson, and other significant figures in the AIDS movement.

Geis, Deborah R., and Steven F. Kruger, editors. Approaching the Millennium: Essays on Angels in America, University of Michigan Press, 1997.

An anthology of essays on Angels in America by theatre and film directors, scenic designers, professors, and critics. Topics cover racial and sexual politics in Kushner's work, religious imagery, and postmodern theoretical analysis.

Mann, Jonathan M. AIDS in the World, Harvard University Press, 1992.

An examination of the global spread of AIDS, detailing the disease's impact on various populations and the responses to the pandemic in different regions.

Pemberton, William E. Exit with Honor: The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan (The Right Wing in America), ME Sharpe, 1998.

A biography of Ronald Reagan, the influential president of the 1980s. It details Reagan's life and delves deeply into his presidency, offering critiques of both his political successes and shortcomings.

Shilts, Randy. And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic, St. Martin's, 1987.

An exhaustive exploration of the origin and proliferation of the AIDS virus, examining the disease through cultural, political, and societal lenses. Shilts, a journalist and gay-rights activist who was openly gay, succumbed to AIDS in 1994.

Stine, Gerald J. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome: Biological, Medical, Social, and Legal Issues, Prentice Hall, 1998.

An informative examination of the history and current status of the AIDS/HIV pandemic. It includes data, social implications, economic impacts, recent medical discoveries, and references.

Twist, Clint. 1980s (Take Ten Years), Raintree, 1993.

Reviews the most significant news events of the 1980s, such as the AIDS crisis, the Cold War, and the collapse of the Berlin Wall.

Vorlicky, Robert, editor. Tony Kushner in Conversation, University of Michigan Press, 1998.

A compilation of engaging, insightful, and highly informative interviews and discussions with Kushner, recorded by journalists, educators, directors, and fellow playwrights. It also includes an afterword by Kushner, where he humorously reflects on “the Intelligent Homosexual.”