Summary
The dawn of fascism can be traced back to a particular Sunday morning in March 1919, when Benito Mussolini rallied his supporters in Milan under the banner of the Fasci di Combattimento. This marked the beginning of a force that, despite its historical roots, came to define the turbulent political landscape of the twentieth century. Mussolini's vision was a unity of a specific kind, promising a national revival in the aftermath of the devastation wrought by World War I, amidst growing socialist and communist movements, and democratic governments struggling with economic turmoil.
Origins and Definitions
Fascism's evolution was not solely reliant on Mussolini or other lesser-known figures highlighted in Robert Paxton's The Anatomy of Fascism. The grim efficacy of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party demonstrated the formidable nature of fascism, making Paxton's claim that it was the "major political innovation of the twentieth century" credible. Yet, Paxton contends that even with the infamous images of Mussolini and Hitler, fascism's essence remains elusive.
A Complex Phenomenon
Understanding fascism is complex and multifaceted. Paxton concludes his book with an overview of significant scholarship, including Renzo De Felice's extensive bibliography on fascism. Despite extensive research primarily focused on Mussolini's Italy, adding studies of Hitler's Germany reveals the sheer volume of work dedicated to different manifestations of fascism.
Related Yet Distinct Movements
While the movements led by Hitler and Mussolini shared similarities, they were not identical, raising the question: What truly defines fascism? According to Paxton, the issue is not the abundance of literature but the approaches that often miss the mark. Some scholars pursue a "fascist minimum," an abstract concept that fails to adequately address the specific origins and developments of various fascist forms.
Beyond Ideology
Fascism is frequently interpreted as an ideology, emphasizing doctrines and propaganda, yet this perspective risks overlooking the actions of fascist leaders and their regimes. Accounts that focus solely on figures like Hitler or Mussolini often underestimate the broader social appeal of fascism. Others analyze specific instances like Nazi Germany or Fascist Italy but neglect necessary comparative studies across different fascist movements.
Empirical Analysis
Paxton's critiques aren't just academic. He denounces those who start with rigid definitions, asserting that fascism is "a general phenomenon" that requires empirical analysis for clarity. His historical perspective highlights fascism as a significant source of twentieth-century suffering and argues that its demise in Italy and Germany did not mark its end. Paxton warns of fascism's persistence into the twenty-first century, even in democratic nations like the United States.
Strategic Analysis
Approaching fascism strategically, rather than through strict definitions, Paxton examines movements and regimes widely recognized as fascist. His analysis focuses on Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany, observing "fascism in action" and its interactions with society. The outcome is a detailed portrait of historical circumstances, a definition of fascism grounded in empirical detail, and critical insights about its future implications.
The Development of Fascism
Fascism, according to Paxton, is not inevitable but rooted in choices made by individuals, leading to distinct stages of development. The Anatomy of Fascism emphasizes five key stages, from the creation of fascist movements to their integration into political systems. Paxton examines their seizure of power, governance, and the eventual fate of fascist regimes.
World War I's Role
While World War I didn't create fascism, it served as a crucial precondition. The war's aftermath provided the "emotional lava" that laid the foundation for fascism, driven by "mobilizing passions" rather than a coherent philosophy. These movements thrived on the perception of societal crisis and the failure of traditional and democratic solutions.
Early Fascist Movements
Initially, fascist movements were...
(This entire section contains 958 words.)
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marginal, attracting primarily young men and World War I veterans with extreme nationalism and racism. Competing for influence, they often resorted to violence. Mussolini and Hitler realized that unity was key to success, aiming to transform fascism into a cohesive force.
Political Alliances
Unlike a direct coup or electoral victory, Mussolini and Hitler rose to power through strategic alliances, sometimes using violent intimidation. They were invited by conservative elites to take leadership roles, seen as necessary to control social unrest. Ironically, fascist agitation often fueled the instability conservatives sought to tame.
The Dynamics of Power
Paxton draws two lessons from these dynamics. First, fascist movements cannot seize power independently; they rely on conservative support. Once in authority, fascists seek to expand their power, exemplified by Hitler's dismantling of democracy in Germany.
Institutional Support
No dictator rules alone, Paxton notes. Fascist regimes required the cooperation of established institutions and bureaucracies. Their agenda often involved promoting ethnic or racial purity and expanding national power through war.
Conservative Collaboration
Fascists and conservatives often collaborated, but Paxton clarifies they are not the same. Conservatives typically seek stability, while fascists push for transformative change. Fascism's dynamic nature can be destabilizing, leading to potential self-destruction.
Radicalization and Conflict
Twentieth-century fascism's striking feature was its escalating demands for action to fulfill promises of national salvation. This drive led to conflicts like World War II. While fascism often leads to self-destruction, Paxton warns against complacency, as its destructive appeal remains potent.
Fascism's Definition
Concluding his work, Paxton provides a concise definition of fascism: a political action focused on reversing national decline through militant nationalism. In partnership with conservative elites, fascist parties forsake democracy for goals of internal purging and external expansion, pursued without ethical or legal constraints. However, the strength of The Anatomy of Fascism lies in its detailed examination of fascism's mechanisms, demonstrating its parasitic nature on weak democracies. For Paxton, maintaining democracy's health is crucial to countering fascist tendencies.
Review Sources
Booklist 100, no. 16 (April 15, 2004): 1420.
The Economist 370 (March 13, 2004): 85.
Foreign Affairs 83, no. 2 (March/April, 2004): 166.
Kirkus Reviews 72, no. 4 (February 15, 2004): 168.
New Statesman 133 (May 3, 2004): 36.
The New York Review of Books 51, no. 16 (October 21, 2004): 33.
The New York Times Book Review 153 (May 2, 2004): 10.
The Spectator 295 (May 22, 2004): 46.
