War and Political Violence in the Mid- to Late 1980s

The turbulent mid- to late-1980s unfolded as a theater of war and political turmoil across several nations. In the opening years of this decade, the iron grip of Ayatollah Khomeini spread a reign of terror over Iran, subjecting its citizens to his harsh rule. His brutal methods included the execution of his own people—children and youths, political figures, and followers of minority faiths were not spared. In 1985, the shadow of dictatorship was lifted off Argentina when Juan Perón, head of a military junta, alongside four of his commanders, faced conviction for heinous human rights abuses against their own citizens. These trials shed light on the dark atrocities committed under his oppressive regime. Meanwhile, a looming nuclear threat prompted U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to initiate arms talks, seeking to prevent a catastrophic nuclear arms buildup. From 1986 onward, the notorious Sicilian mafia faced judgment in trials that lasted nearly two years, exposing their violent quest for power. By the end, sentences were handed down to 338 defendants, with prison terms and fines totaling over ten million dollars.

Shango

Shango towers as a distinguished figure in the tapestry of Nigerian Yoruba mythology. Revered by different names across various cultures, his divine essence remains unchanged. Once the fourth king of Oyo, Shango transcended mortality to become a deity posthumously. Numerous tales swirl around his origin; in one, he emerges as the progeny of Aganju, the fire god, imbuing "An Anthem" with fiery symbolism that resonates with Sanchez’s portrayal of her people as born of flames.

As the forebear of the Yoruba people and the deity of thunder and weather, Shango is emblematic of justice and discipline, embodied by his iconic double-sided axe. His spirit of defiance against European colonial rule has come to symbolize African resilience. Closely linked to the rhythms of music and dance, Shango's veneration empowers followers with his spirit, gifting them strength and tranquility amidst adversity.

Soweto

The simmering racial strife in South Africa erupted dramatically on June 16, 1976, in Soweto, a township near Johannesburg. A massive protest involving 10,000 students rose against the government's new policy enforcing Afrikaans, the language of the ruling Dutch minority, as the medium of instruction. Yet, the grievances ran deeper, targeting a multitude of oppressive laws that sought to further subjugate black South Africans. Despite forming the majority, black Africans were trapped in a cycle of poverty, joblessness, inadequate healthcare, and political silence. In stark contrast, the minority white population enjoyed a disproportionate share of power, wealth, and opportunities, underpinned by the ruthless apartheid regime.

Voices like Desmond Tutu's had long warned of impending unrest in Soweto, predicting its youth would soon rise against their mistreatment. Initially peaceful, the protest saw students wield signs, but tensions soared, leading to police deploying tear gas, and students retaliating with rocks, escalating to gunfire. The unrest swelled as others joined, overturning police cars, setting fires, and attacking white citizens. The flames of protest spread to other regions, sparking violence in numerous townships. Tragically, the Soweto uprising claimed the lives of 700 black Africans and left 5,000 wounded, with nationwide casualties reaching thousands. The revolt sparked a fierce, sustained rebellion, breeding guerrilla groups, liberation movements, and a surge in black pride, challenging apartheid like never before.

Repetitive Devices Illuminated

In "An Anthem," Sanchez wields repetition with the finesse of a maestro, drawing upon this literary tool to reinforce vivid images and elemental ideas that lie at the heart of the poem. Foremost among these devices is anaphora—a form of parallelism marked by the recurrence...

• 1987: In the footsteps of trailblazers like Harriet Beecher Stowe, Zora Neale Hurston, and Gwendolyn Brooks, African American women writers persist in voicing the need for transformation. Their words echo calls for justice and freedom, with ranks that include the illustrious Toni Morrison, the profound Maya Angelou, the evocative Nikki Giovanni, and the powerful Alice Walker, who was honored with the Pulitzer Prize for The Color Purple in 1983. Joining them is Gloria Naylor, whose poignant The Women of Brewster Place captured the National Book Award the same year.

• Today: The resonant voices of African American women continue to shape society with their compelling narratives. Toni Morrison, a Nobel laureate since 1993, and the timeless Maya Angelou, remain influential voices. They are now accompanied by rising literary talents like Edwidge Danticat and Pearl Cleage, who add fresh perspectives and vigor to the ongoing dialogue for change and empowerment.

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• 1987: In South Africa, the oppressive apartheid regime, which enforces racial segregation and systemic disenfranchisement, still holds sway. Under this draconian rule, races are meticulously classified, compelling non-European individuals to reside in designated zones, stripping them of political clout, educational opportunities, and essential healthcare. In defiance, a coalition of twenty-five nations, including the United States, has imposed trade embargos on South Africa to protest this injustice.

• Today: The year 1994 marked a historic turning point in South Africa as apartheid was abolished, thanks to relentless advocacy from countless organizations and the unwavering leadership of Nelson Mandela, who served as president from 1994 to 1999. Now, all South Africans are unified under equal rights, engaging in a political landscape that champions inclusivity and democracy.

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• 1987: Dictatorial regimes cast long shadows across nations. In Chile, under the iron grip of Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, countless citizens face imprisonment, torture, and death, with many vanishing without a trace. In Iraq, Saddam Hussein's brutal regime silences dissent through imprisonment, torture, and mass killings, particularly targeting Sunni Muslims and Kurds in acts of genocide. Meanwhile, in the Philippines, the ousting of Ferdinand Marcos in 1986 heralds the end of an era marked by martial law, egregious human rights abuses, and rampant corruption.

• Today: North Korea under Kim Jong Il remains isolated, a nation sealed from the world, where the military is prioritized over the starving populace amidst severe drought and famine. Meanwhile, terrorist organizations have grown more sophisticated and formidable than ever. Yet, Saddam Hussein's fall and subsequent execution stand as a pivotal moment, leaving Iraq grappling with the tumultuous task of forging a new governmental path.

Sources
Anderson, Kamili, “Giving Our Souls Ears,” in Belles Lettres, Vol. 4, No. 2, Winter 1989, p. 14.

Antonucci, Ron, Review of Shake Loose My Skin, in Library Journal, Vol. 129, No. 6, April 1, 2004, p. 64.

Asim, Jabari, “A Revival with Sonia Sanchez,” in American Visions, Vol. 13, No. 1, February–March 1998, p. 27.

Chandler, Dahna, “Poetry in Our Voices,” in Heart & Soul, Vol. 7, No. 2, April–May 2000, p. 32.

Gabbin, Joanne Veal, “The Southern Imagination of Sonia Sanchez,” in Southern Women Writers: The New Generation, University of Alabama Press, 1990, p. 183.

Joyce, Joyce A., “The Continuing Journey of Sonia Sanchez: From homegirls & handgrenades to Wounded in the House of a Friend,” in Ijala: Sonia Sanchez and the African Poetic Tradition, Third World Press, 1996, p. 133.

Review of Shake Loose My Skin, in Publishers Weekly, Vol. 245, No. 51, December 21, 1998, p. 63.

Salaam, Yusef, “Sonia Returns Victorious and Honored,” in New York Amsterdam News, Vol. 90, No. 48, November 25, 1999, p. 21.

Sanchez, Sonia, “An Anthem,” in Shake Loose My Skin, Beacon Press, 1999, pp. 75–76.

Seaman, Donna, Review of Shake Loose My Skin,” in Booklist, Vol. 95, No. 12, February 15, 1999, p. 1028.

Van Buren, Ann K., Review of Shake Loose My Skin, in Library Journal, Vol. 124, No. 2, February 1, 1999, p. 93.

Further Reading
Joyce, Joyce A., Conversations with Sonia Sanchez (Literary Conversations), University Press of Mississippi, 2007.

Joyce has spent considerable time with Sanchez over the years, having the opportunity to interview her about her craft and her purpose in writing. In this collection of interviews, readers learn about how Sanchez’s writing craft and subject matter have changed over three decades, during which time Sanchez was an activist, mother, and teacher.

Ling, Peter J., and Sharo Monteith, eds., Gender in the Civil Rights Movement, Routledge, 1999.

Ling and Monteith have compiled an anthology of writings exploring the role of gender issues during the American civil rights movement. The essays address important events, legislation, key figures, and philosophies.

Sanchez, Sonia, The Adventures of Fathead, Smallhead, and Squarehead, Third Press Review of Books, 1973.

Among Sanchez’s best known children’s books, this is the story of three friends who gain insight about what is really smart and what is really dumb.

Stone, Ruth M., Africa (Garland Encyclopedia of World Music), Routledge, 1997.

This volume includes a wealth of information about Africa and how music and dance are an integral part of African culture. Stone covers general topics about music, dance, ritual, and expression, but also discusses subjects specific to certain regions. The book includes a CD.

Young, Kevin, Jelly Roll: A Blues, Knopf, 2003.

Young is an African American poet whose writing is influenced by music of all kinds. In this collection, readers see how everything from jazz to classical music informs his poetic vision and expression.