Analysis

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Ralph Waldo Emerson's writings have left an indelible mark on American literature, exploring the depths of the human spirit and its intrinsic connection to nature. By advocating self-reliance and emphasizing transcendentalist ideals, Emerson's works encapsulate a belief in the unity of nature and the human soul. This article delves into Emerson's major themes, including his philosophy of nature, the Over-Soul, self-reliance, and his contributions to poetry and culture.

Emerson's Philosophy of Nature

Emerson’s literary journey consistently highlighted the theme of self-reliance, underscoring the ‘self’ as the ultimate moral arbiter. This self is not about selfish pursuit but an autonomous spirit aligned with universal moral truths. Nature, in Emerson's philosophy, is pivotal in nurturing this spirit, offering spiritual and practical benefits to humanity. In his seminal work "Nature" (1836), Emerson presents nature as a conduit for transcending the self and achieving unity with the universe's divine essence.

Emerson's perception of nature is a complex interplay of emotion and intellect. While emotionally vivifying nature with life and spirit, his rationality often denies its independent existence, echoing traditional idealism. Yet, his affection for nature is unwavering, viewing it as a wellspring of spiritual nourishment, intellectual growth, and aesthetic beauty.

The Over-Soul and Spiritual Unity

In "The Over-Soul" (1842), Emerson articulates his vision of spiritual unity, portraying the Over-Soul as the quintessence of wisdom, virtue, power, and beauty. This universal spirit underpins the cosmos, legitimizing all existence and bridging the individual soul with the divine. He posits that every person harbors a transcendental spirit linking them to the Over-Soul, fostering self-reliance by trusting in one’s intuition as a moral compass.

Emerson extends his Over-Soul concept to history and art, viewing history as a subjective chronicle of the universal mind and art as a manifestation of an artist’s essence. By engaging with the Over-Soul, individuals can tap into their innate divinity, fostering self-sufficiency and the capacity to create original works.

Self-Reliance and Personal Freedom

In his essay "Self-Reliance" (1841), Emerson delves deeper into the significance of intuition and the internal moral sentiment within everyone, advocating for a life steered by personal instincts. He juxtaposes the purity of infancy against societal conformity, suggesting that true independence arises from trusting one’s emotions and instincts. Emerson acknowledges life's contradictions, maintaining that adherence to one’s feelings leads to authentic living.

Emerson's belief in self-reliance challenges societal norms stifling individuality. He urges individuals to introspect, asserting that self-reliance aligns with the divine spirit residing in each person.

Poetic Innovations and Cultural Impact

Though Emerson is predominantly celebrated for his essays, his poetry embodies his philosophical ideologies. His poems showcase an organic form and vernacular style, often exploring themes of nature and spirituality. Emerson championed the idea that poetry should originate from its content rather than adhere to traditional structure, resulting in a style that prioritized "meter-making argument" over rigid forms.

Works like "The Rhodora," "Brahma," and "Uriel" reflect his fascination with nature and Eastern philosophy, employing vivid imagery and a blend of Eastern and Western thought. His poetic voice sought to encapsulate the unity between nature and the human spirit, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all things.

While Emerson's poetic aspirations did not fully manifest in a new American poetics, later achieved by Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson, his contributions remain influential, offering a unique perspective on American culture and identity.

Later Life and Reflections

In his later years, Emerson’s thought matured to recognize the interplay of fate and limitation, as seen in works like "Fate" (1860). While he continued to affirm the power of thought and will, he acknowledged fate's role in shaping human experience, seeking equilibrium between freedom and...

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constraint. This nuanced view marked a maturation of his philosophy, reflecting a deeper understanding of human existence.

Emerson’s enduring legacy lies in his ability to inspire self-trust and spiritual unity. His works encourage individuals to forge their own paths, drawing from the universal spirit within to achieve personal and artistic fulfillment. Through his essays and poetry, Emerson has left a lasting impact on American literature, advocating for a culture rooted in self-reliance and the harmony of nature and the human spirit.

Emerson's Poetic Experimentation

Emerson’s poetic achievements extend beyond the greatness of individual poems. While only a few of his poems attain undisputed greatness, many are rich with implications, characterized by memorable lines or phrases. As a cultural critic and poetic innovator, Emerson’s influence through his essays and poetry has been significant in shaping the style and methods of subsequent American poets. His endeavors to become the poet he envisaged in "The American Scholar" reflect democratic principles. He sought distinctively American art forms, beginning with expression rather than form, evolving the structure of his poems through their expression.

Inspired by Horatio Greenough's "organic aesthetic," Emerson abandoned traditional poetic structure for a flexible iambic meter and a variable line, often octosyllabic. Rather than adhering to a fixed external form, the poem would derive its form from its content and expression, embodying the freedom Emerson sought for a "democratic" poetry.

Organic Form and Vernacular Style

Emerson's most successful poetry is marked by its organic form and vernacular style; however, his less successful works, like "The Sphinx," often suffer from cryptic and diffuse qualities. These strengths and weaknesses stem from his attempts to merge philosophical ideas and lyricism within a symbolic form where the image evokes deeper meaning. "I am born a poet," Emerson declared, identifying his vocation as a perceiver and lover of harmonies between soul and matter, particularly the correspondence between these realms.

In "The Poet," Emerson stated, "it is not metres, but metre-making argument that makes a poem." The representative American poet would be a namer and enumerator, drawing inspiration from the vigorous American vernacular and reinvigorating poetic language by tracing root metaphors to their origins in everyday experience. He would favor ordinary speech over stilted poetic diction, sacrificing sound for sense. As a result, Emerson's poems are often as spare as their native landscape, muted and understated, reflecting his role as a stylistic, if not substantive, innovator.

Categories of Emerson's Poems

Emerson's poems fall into distinct categories: nature poems; philosophical or meditative poems, often echoing his essays; autobiographical verse; and occasional pieces. Though these categories may overlap, the "organic" aesthetic and colloquial tone define them as distinctively Emersonian. Two frequently anthologized pieces, "Days" and "The Snow-Storm," illustrate his poetic style.

"Days"

"Days" is often hailed as Emerson's most perfect poem, resolving less than it seems at first glance. The poem addresses Emerson's recurring dilemma of vocation, questioning how he could justify apparent idleness in a work-oriented society. Cast in Oriental imagery, "Days" personifies time into daughters of Time, who pass through the poet’s garden offering life's riches, which he too hastily rejects for a "few herbs and apples," symbolizing the contemplative life. The Day scorns his choice, critiquing his preference for contemplation over more ambitious pursuits. Despite the poet never addressing this critique or identifying the abandoned "morning wishes," the imagery conveys meanings beyond the surface.

"The Problem"

A thematically related poem, "The Problem," sees Emerson justifying his departure from the ministry, an institution he respects but cannot serve. As a poet rather than priest, Emerson favored direct artistic inspiration over inherited religious truths. The poem's third stanza articulates Emerson’s "organic" aesthetic, illustrating form emerging from expression with the image of the artist who "builded better than he knew." Nature, he suggests, creates forms that "art might obey, but not surpass."

"The Snow-Storm"

"The Snow-Storm" epitomizes Emerson's organic theory of art, where the poem embodies what it describes. The first stanza announces the storm's arrival, while the second evokes the "frolic architecture" of snow, paralleling human architectural forms. Nature creates freely, inspiring human art. Wind and snow shape myriad forms, which humans can mimic only in "slow structures" of stone. The poet admires nature's work, celebrating its artistry.

"Hamatraya"

Emerson’s "Hamatraya" critiques Yankee materialism through a Hindu meditation on corporeal impermanence. Emerson asserts that no one truly owns land; claiming ownership is self-deception. Land outlasts successive "masters," who boast of ownership but ultimately return to the earth they coveted. The poem's dramatic form and lyrical "Earth-Song" contrast with materialism, metaphorically capturing the cycle of life. Hindu cosmology and natural ecology converge in Emerson’s critique of private land-ownership pretensions.

"Brahma"

Emerson’s popular "Brahma" blends Eastern and Western thought, adopting Brahma's perspective to present divine relativity and life's continuity. Opposites, such as "the Red Slayer" and his victim, merge within Brahma’s unity, reconciling all in the ultimate universe. This paradoxical logic appealed to Emerson's monistic philosophy, presented poetically. The poem draws heavily from Emerson's study of the Bhagavad Gita and other Oriental scriptures, with the first stanza paralleling Hindu texts. The poem's regular ballad stanzas balance its exotic references and novel theme.

"Uriel"

Religious myth pervades "Uriel," which Robert Frost hailed as "the greatest Western poem yet." Though Frost’s praise may be extreme, it remains one of Emerson's profound works. The poem explores good and evil's relativity, borrowing the primal revolt against God theme. Uriel, the rebellious archangel, embodies Emerson's advanced thinker, misunderstood or rejected by others. Uriel represents artist and rebel, roles Emerson identified with, particularly after his controversial "Divinity School Address." Uriel’s words resonate with modern age discoveries in physics and astronomy, confirming Emerson’s intuitions about matter and energy's relativity.

"Each and All"

Emerson’s monistic philosophy is evident in "Each and All," asserting beauty's dependence on context. The peasant, sparrow, seashell, and maid must be appreciated within their setting to maintain original appeal. Emerson argues that beauty cannot be possessed without destruction. "Each and All" echoes his essay Nature, where Emerson states, "Nothing is quite beautiful alone; nothing but is beautiful in the whole." The poem lyrically expresses this aesthetic unity, with poetic images lending grace to the philosophical concept.

"Give All to Love"

In "Give All to Love," Emerson’s paradoxical logic unites apparent opposites, initially appearing to conflict between yielding to love and retaining individuality. The first three stanzas advocate wholehearted love, while the fourth counsels being "free as an Arab." The final stanzas resolve this by affirming that love must be free from jealousy or possessiveness. Emerson reconciles love and self-reliance, suggesting a Neoplatonic love hierarchy but focusing on loving fully without surrendering identity. The closing lines, "When half-gods go,/ The Gods arrive," are often quoted for their aphoristic quality.

"Threnody"

"Threnody," Emerson's lament for his son Waldo, who died at six, has led some to criticize him for coldness. Despite his grief, Emerson seems to chastise himself for his inability to sustain mourning. His journals reveal deep sorrow, transcribed into "Threnody," a pastoral elegy for his son. The poem blends conventional and idealized pastoral images, expressing grief with Emerson's doctrine of compensation. The poignant details of Waldo's "daily haunts" and unused toys are tempered by nature’s mourning, illustrating Emerson’s ability to channel grief through classical conventions.

"The Rhodora"

Emerson’s muse often drew inspiration from nature, with "The Rhodora" exemplifying his focus on sharp New England landscape details. The poem’s first half vividly describes discovering the rhodora, its beauty in stark contrast to its simple surroundings. Unfortunately, the poem's latter half shifts to a generalized moral reflection, reminiscent of William Cullen Bryant's "To a Waterfowl." This illustrates Emerson's struggle to break from eighteenth-century English poetic conventions to create an American vernacular style. The subject is American, but the style remains partially derivative.

"The Humble Bee"

"The Humble Bee" is noteworthy for its form, with tight octosyllabic lines and rhymed couplets that evoke the bee's flight. The bee becomes a metaphor for the poet intoxicated by nature. Though some conceits may seem quaint, the poem innovatively uses terse expression and symbolic form, anticipating Emily Dickinson's poetry's elliptical language.

"Woodnotes"

"Woodnotes," extracted from Emerson’s journals, is a lengthy and somewhat prosaic two-part narrative poem. Part 1 introduces the transcendental nature lover, reminiscent of Thoreau, while part 2 describes the harmony between humans and nature, each fully realized through the other. The vagueness of part 2 illustrates Emerson’s difficulty in capturing transcendental rapture in specific poetic language.

"Concord Hymn"

"Concord Hymn," a traditional patriotic poem, commemorates the Battle of Concord in four ballad stanzas, demonstrating Emerson's mastery of traditional verse forms. The first stanza’s well-known lines have become part of American folklore, illustrating how Emerson could master traditional verse forms when desired. The metaphorical imagery of "bridge" and "flood" conveys the poem’s theme that the Battle of Concord sparked the American Revolutionary War.

"Ode"

Emerson's "Ode" is unconventional, with terse, variable lines addressing social and political issues like the Mexican War, Fugitive Slave Law, and secession threats. This open form suits Emerson’s oracular style, aiming to leave memorable lines with the reader. His muse criticizes Daniel Webster for compromising principles by supporting the Fugitive Slave Law, denouncing materialistic interests profiting from slavery. Emerson’s lines, "Things are in the saddle,/ And ride mankind," express his misgivings about America's trajectory toward civil war. In the 1850s, Emerson became an outspoken opponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, occasionally risking personal safety to speak before hostile crowds.

Legacy

Despite striving for a new American poetry grounded in common diction, Emerson's poetry did not fully fulfill his vision in "The American Scholar" and "The Poet." While aspiring to do for American poetry what Wordsworth did for English, Emerson was neither as consistent nor as skillful in implementing his theory. His poetry could not sustain a genuine American vernacular tradition, which awaited Whitman and Dickinson. Emerson was perhaps too philosophical to realize his poetic innovations fully. Nevertheless, his poems retain a freshness and vitality absent in contemporaries like Longfellow and Lowell. Emerson's greatness lies in envisioning future American poetry, distinct from European models, evident in his essays, journals, and select poems where vision and purpose harmonize. His "Saadi" exemplifies restraint and poetic grace.

Historical Context

The Rise of Industry

Although many critics typically associate Transcendentalism with the decade from 1836 to 1846, the movement actually spanned a broader period in the middle of the 19th century. It began with Andrew Jackson's election as President of the United States in 1829 and continued through the Civil War era (1860–1865). Jackson and his Democratic allies claimed to champion the average citizen and opposed large corporations and the concentration of wealth. As the 19th century commenced, industry flourished, driven by numerous technological advancements. The era experienced substantial population growth due to waves of immigrants from Europe and Asia, territorial expansion westward that displaced thousands of Native Americans, advancements in printing technology, the construction of extensive railroad networks, and a shift from a predominantly agrarian society to one focused on industry and urbanization. In urban centers, poverty and crime rates soared. Labor unions campaigned vigorously against exploitative labor practices, while some Americans amassed significant wealth. Textile mills emerged in the Northeast, igniting debates about whether they offered women a means of economic independence or trapped them in exploitative labor conditions.

The economy appeared to prosper for a while, until the recession of 1837 struck. This economic downturn, often compared to the Great Depression of the 1930s, brought difficult times for many Americans and prompted writers like Thoreau to question the impact of industrialization. “The mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation,” he observed in Walden. Intellectuals and writers engaged in debates about the significance of material possessions. Thoreau was explicit in his views: “Most of the luxuries, and many of the so-called comforts of life, are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind.” Despite the recession's effect on the American economy, the middle class continued to expand and evolve throughout the mid-century.

Reform

Numerous events during the mid-19th century created divisions within the nation. The contentious issue of slavery was a significant topic of debate, particularly after the Fugitive Slave Law was enacted in 1850. This law mandated that escaped slaves found in the North could be apprehended and returned to the South, effectively back into slavery. The legislation incited widespread controversy, a debate further intensified by Harriet Beecher Stowe’s publication of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852. Stowe was among several authors addressing slavery, with abolitionist literature prevalent in the North, including slave narratives by writers like Frederick Douglass and Harriet Jacobs. Opposition to slavery was based on moral, philosophical, and economic arguments.

Transcendentalist writers held a nuanced position regarding abolitionism. Walt Whitman opposed slavery but never adopted a strong abolitionist stance. Authors like Emerson and Hawthorne did not focus heavily on the matter, although it subtly and overtly influenced their work. Thoreau expressed the most pronounced anti-slavery sentiment, articulating his views in his essay “Resistance to Civil Government.”

The antislavery and women's rights movements intersected in numerous ways. Women were denied the right to vote and could not seek divorce from their husbands. Advocates for women's rights and antislavery saw similarities in their struggles, as slavery imposed an additional burden on black women: they were not only regarded as property but also faced sexual exploitation by their white owners. Antislavery proponents like Stowe called on Northern white women to recognize the horror of the situation. Women increasingly raised their voices and garnered support for their cause. The 1848 Seneca Falls Convention in New York was the largest assembly of women's rights advocates the country had witnessed. Frederick Douglass, along with many other women's rights advocates, spoke at the event. These activists fought against laws that restricted women and sought to change societal attitudes.

Antebellum America, or pre-Civil War America, was divided into two distinct spheres: public and private. The public sphere, where men earned a living in the marketplace, contrasted with the private sphere, the home, which was the domain of women. The prevailing concept of the time, the "cult of true womanhood," dictated that women should be pure, pious, domestic, and obedient to their husbands. Writers like Fuller challenged the idea of "true womanhood" and the rigid separation of spheres. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Lucretia Mott, Lydia Maria Child, and numerous other women—some renowned, others less known—continued to fight for women's rights well beyond the Seneca Falls Convention and the Civil War.

Discussion Topics

Ralph Waldo Emerson's prose is renowned for its vivid imagery, particularly evident in his work Nature, where he paints the natural world with words that capture both its beauty and its profound philosophical implications. Emerson utilizes nature not merely as a backdrop but as a central character in his discourse, highlighting its intrinsic value and multifaceted utility. Yet, one might question the suitability of the term "using" in this context. Emerson's philosophical musings suggest that nature is more to be revered and understood than exploited, prompting the question of whether a different expression might better align with his intent.

In "The American Scholar," Emerson's address is often interpreted as a reflection on his own vocational journey. Delivered in 1837, a period marked by rapid societal transformation, Emerson sought to redefine the role of the individual in the face of such change. His speech calls for intellectual independence and a break from European cultural dominance, urging Americans to trust their own experiences and insights.

Emerson's essay "Self-Reliance" strongly reinforces its central theme through its distinctive style. His assertive, aphoristic prose imbues readers with a sense of urgency and empowerment, encouraging them to trust themselves and resist societal pressures. This stylistic choice mirrors the essay's core message: the importance of individual intuition and the rejection of conformity.

Emerson's reinterpretation of religious concepts serves to broaden spiritual understanding. He introduces terms like "Oversoul" and "Power," which, while reminiscent of traditional notions of God, imbue his ideas with a sense of universality and inclusivity. Through this linguistic transformation, Emerson aims to expand the spiritual narrative beyond conventional religious frameworks, inviting a more personal and direct connection with the divine.

Despite his optimistic view of human potential and nature, Emerson does not shy away from acknowledging the existence and influence of evil in the world. His writings reflect an awareness of life's darker aspects, suggesting a nuanced understanding of the human experience that encompasses both light and shadow. This acknowledgment of duality enriches his philosophical discourse, offering a more comprehensive view of reality.

Emerson in His Journals

Ralph Waldo Emerson's journals offer an intimate look into the life and mind of one of America's most revered thinkers. Throughout his life, Emerson meticulously documented his thoughts and experiences, providing insight far beyond the public persona of the "Sage of Concord." Joel Porte's edited volume, "Emerson in His Journals," brings to light the private reflections and candid observations of Emerson's complex character.

Emerson's Journals: A Window into Personal Struggles

Emerson's lifelong habit of journaling began during his undergraduate years at Harvard and continued until his death. His journals, amounting to more than three million words, were initially published in a careful 16-volume Harvard edition. Joel Porte's one-volume edition curates these writings, offering a more intimate portrayal of Emerson than previously available. This collection brings to light Emerson's inner dialogue, revealing a man far more human and varied than his public image as a serene transcendentalist.

The Personal Emerson

Porte's edition focuses on the personal rather than the literary Emerson, showcasing autobiographical content over intellectual or literary development. This approach provides a rounded portrait of Emerson, highlighting his doubts, personal losses, and relationships. His journals reveal a candid side of Emerson, one that was often overshadowed by earlier editorial standards that sought to maintain a decorous image.

Early Influences and Lifelong Habits

Emerson's habit of journaling was deeply rooted in the Puritan tradition of self-examination. Influenced by his mother and aunt Mary Moody Emerson, he developed a lifelong practice of reflecting on his conscience and experiences. His journals served as a "Savings Bank" for his thoughts, capturing the complexity of his emotions and intellectual pursuits.

Introspection and Self-Criticism

Throughout his journals, Emerson is strikingly critical of himself. He acknowledges his "nasty appetite" and "love of indolence," contrasting his introspective nature with the ambition of his peers. His self-awareness often anticipates and disarms criticism, reflecting the influence of Montaigne's candor, whom Emerson admired. This self-critique resonates with readers as Emerson navigates his personal and philosophical development.

Professional Challenges and Personal Losses

Emerson's journals document his struggle with career choices and personal tragedies. His discontent with both teaching and ministry is evident, culminating in his resignation from the ministry in 1832. His European travels following this decision provided cultural insight while reaffirming his belief in self-reliance. However, personal challenges, such as the death of his first wife and later his son, Waldo, deeply affected him, testing the resilience of his optimistic philosophy.

Emerson's Evolving Philosophy

As Emerson matured, his journals reflect his philosophical evolution. His disillusionment with institutional religion and personal grief led to a more individualistic outlook. He valued self-reliance and personal growth, advocating for these ideals in his essays and resisting utopian and communal pressures from contemporaries like Alcott and Ripley.

Engagement with Social Issues

Emerson's journals also reveal his engagement with pressing social issues of his time. The Mexican War and Fugitive Slave Law spurred him to speak against the moral failings he perceived in American society. Despite his initial reluctance, Emerson became more outspoken as he confronted the discord between his ideals and societal realities.

Late Life and Legacy

In later years, Emerson's journals capture his continued intellectual engagement despite personal losses and declining health. His European tour in 1848 and reflections on American culture show a mind grappling with the changes of mid-19th century America. Even as he faced personal and collective challenges, his writings remained a testament to his enduring clarity and vigor.

A Fresh Perspective on Emerson

Joel Porte's "Emerson in His Journals" provides an unvarnished portrait of Emerson, eschewing the constraints of Victorian sensibilities and offering a version of Emerson that resonates with contemporary readers. It highlights his pragmatic, tough-minded nature, and his understanding of his era, offering valuable lessons for modern audiences. The volume presents a balanced view of Emerson, combining his intellectual pursuits with his personal insights and affirmations of self-reliance and individual growth.

Style and Technique

Free Verse

While many transcendentalist authors chose essays to convey their ideas, Whitman opted for poetry, particularly free verse. This style is marked by its irregular line lengths and absence of rhyme or consistent rhythm, defying traditional poetic conventions. Whitman's Leaves of Grass creates its own rhythm through the repetition of words and phrases, a technique sometimes referred to as "cataloging." Ideas, images, and lines flow without interruption from set stanzas or strict rules. For a transcendentalist poet like Whitman, free verse was ideal because the form's freedom mirrored the themes in his poetry. In works like “Song of Myself,” he explored themes of the soul, love, desire, sexuality, and pleasure, which were more effectively conveyed in this unconventional style. Both his form and content drew attention from critics and readers, resulting in mixed reviews. Whitman's pioneering use of free verse during that period in American history secured his enduring legacy in the literary canon.

Romanticism

Evolving from English Romanticism (1789–1832), American Romanticism, also known as the American Renaissance, was significant in its own right as it signified a revival in American literature. Critics mark this American cultural rebirth as starting with the Jacksonian era in 1828 and continuing until the Civil War in 1865. This period introduced writers like Emerson, Thoreau, Melville, Hawthorne, Fuller, Dickinson, and Poe, along with many popular authors of serialized fiction, such as Harriet Beecher Stowe. For the first time, American literature gained high regard domestically and was taken seriously in Europe. Although American Romanticism had its roots in Europe, it incorporated essential elements from English Romanticism. Firstly, the English romantics emphasized nature as a source of inspiration and deep reflection, a concept that American transcendentalists expanded upon. Secondly, English Romanticism celebrated intense, overflowing emotions, as seen in works like Emerson’s "Nature" and Whitman’s Leaves of Grass. Romanticism also held a humanistic perspective on the world. Transcendentalists valued humanity and the human spirit, with a strong belief in democratic ideals and human potential.

Tone

The tone of Transcendentalism can be described as elevated. Transcendentalist writers convey intense emotions, serious concepts, and profound reflections. This movement was driven by intellectuals and not by the general populace, although it eventually influenced the masses. To understand the tone of transcendentalist writing, it is helpful to compare it to other literature of the time. As transcendentalists were writing, popular fiction was rising in popularity among American readers. This included dime novels, serialized stories, sentimental tales, and urban narratives, with numerous genres circulating and attracting large audiences. Notably, Hawthorne famously complained in a letter to his publisher about the “damned mob of scribbling women” who wrote popular fiction, impacting his book sales. Transcendentalists aimed to establish an intellectual tradition rooted in spirituality and American democracy. While one could argue that popular fiction also engaged in intellectual discourse and addressed significant contemporary issues, transcendentalists were focused on crafting an American aesthetic, evident in their language and tone.

Henry David Thoreau

Henry David Thoreau is best known to most Americans as a man who divorced himself from society and lived in the woods, specifically the woods of Concord, Massachusetts, near Walden Pond, which he made famous with a small book of essays.

In the book, Walden or Life in the Woods, Thoreau offers his views on the duties and the rights of free men, the relationship of man to nature, the significance of solitude, the ultimate purpose of each man's existence, and numerous other beliefs he holds.

Henry David Thoreau was born in Concord, Massachusetts, on July 12, 1817. During his lifetime, the United States would struggle to deal with its territorial expansion, mechanization and labor, foreign and domestic wars, and the issue of slavery. Thoreau himself was fervently against slavery; he also chose to be incarcerated, rather than pay taxes that would support the United States' war with Mexico. Thoreau spent only one night in jail, and he explains some of his reasoning in his 1849 essay, Civil Disobedience, which deals with defiance against unjust laws and acts by governments. His views on effective resistance to unfair government practices are contained in the essay, which remains a bible of nonviolent resistance movements. Thoreau's theories influenced the Indian civil rights leader, Mohandas Gandhi, South African former President, Nelson Mandela, as well as the African-American head of the Civil Rights Movement, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Thoreau attended Harvard from 1833 to 1837. Upon graduating, he taught school for a time, but soon resigned his position. A bit later, Thoreau met Ralph Waldo Emerson, the founder of the Transcendentalist Movement, and they became close friends. Emerson was a patron of Thoreau's, encouraging him to write and helping him publish; Thoreau even became a tutor to Emerson's children.

During a period of disagreement with Emerson, however, Thoreau set off on his adventure in the simplification of his life, to, as the famous lines put it, “live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived.” His experiment of living alone in a cabin in the woods lasted two years and two months. In the middle of his sojourn, he went through the experience that led him to write Civil Disobedience. Anyone reading the book today might call its author an early proponent of libertarian philosophy, since it begins, “I heartily accept the motto—‘That government is best which governs least’.”

On the day Thoreau died, May 6, 1862, the United States was in the middle of the Civil War, fighting over what freedom meant and who should be free. Thoreau's writings became part of the canon of American literature which deals with the subject, and the number of minds he has influenced about personal and political duty is beyond count.

Friendship – The essay is frequently, but not always, preceded by an untitled poem by Emerson:

A ruddy drop of manly blood
The surging sea outweighs;
The world uncertain comes and goes,
The lover rooted stays.
I fancied he was fled,
And, after many a year,
Glowed unexhausted kindliness
Like daily sunrise there.
My careful heart was free again,—
O friend, my bosom said,
Through thee alone the sky is arched,
Through thee the rose is red,
All things through thee take nobler form
And look beyond the earth,
The mill-round of our fate appears
A sun-path in thy worth.
Me too thy nobleness has taught
To master my despair;
The fountains of my hidden life
Are through thy friendship fair.
maugre – [archaic] in spite of
benevolence – goodwill
complacency – contentedness
nimblest – the quickest and most agile
misapprehension – a misconception or misunderstanding
metamorphosed – transformed
ennuis – feelings of boredom or depression
unsought – without being looked for
affinity – a liking
connives – pretends to be ignorant of; conspires
Apollo – the Greek god of the sun, poetry, light, music, and truth, and others; he was the son of Zeus and often has “Phoebus” attached to his name.
Muses – In mythology, the muses are nine sisters, daughters of Zeus, who inspire creativity in poetry, music, art, and other disciplines. They are: Clio (history), Urania (astronomy), Thalia (comedy), Melpomene (tragedy), Erato (love poetry), Polyhymnia (song), Euterpe (lyric poetry), Terpsichore (dance), and Calliope (epic poetry).
systole – the contraction of the heart; opposite of diastole
diastole – the relaxation of the heart; opposite of systole
metaphysical – supernatural; not perceivable by the senses
Elysian – heavenly; Elysium was the region of the Greek underworld reserved for heroes.
apprehension – the ability to be understood
chaplets – a garland of leaves worn on the head
festoons – decorative drapings of leaves or flowers
reveries – rhapsodies; pleasant considerations
tantamount – almost the same as
effigy – an imitation or likeness
superinduces – [archaic] brings on in addition
environs – surrounds
indulged – allowed; given in to
apathies – lapses of caring or concern
epilepsies – seizures or spasms
rebuked – criticized; chastised
naturlangsamkeit – [German] “the natural slowness of time”; Emerson may have coined the word.
Alps – a major European mountain range
Andes – a mountain range in South America
audacious – bold
bower – a temporary structure covered with leaves and flowers
intrinsic – natural; native
dissimulation – deception
diadems – crowns, jewels
parry – to ward off
philanthropy – a love of humankind; charitable acts
paradox – something that contradicts itself
lucre – money or profit
sutler – [archaic] someone who sells small goods to soldiers
substantiate – to make real; give substance to
municipal – relating to local society or government
prostitution – cheap, frequent use
modish – stylish; fashionable
amity – friendship; peaceful relations
frivolous – trivial; silly
curricle – a two-wheeled carriage drawn by horses
sallies – jokes, quips, or jests
consummation – the ultimate goal
latent – dormant; potential
evanescent – like a vapor; vanishing
piques – excites or stirs up
antagonism – hostility
nettle – a thorn
confounding – ruining; confusing
desecrate – to violate or destroy the sacredness of
profane – low; earthly and trivial
mien – the facial expression
Crimen…aequat – [Latin] “Those whom crime pollutes, it makes equal.”
vitiates – corrupts or debases
consuetudes – customs
nonage – immaturity
Janus-faced – Janus, the Roman god of gates, doorways, beginnings, and endings, is usually depicted with two faces, each looking in an opposite direction.
harbinger – an omen or predictor
firmament – the sky
languid – slow; not energetic
capacious – able to receive or contain
empyrean – relating to heaven
unrequited – without having the same emotion returned
deify – to worship as a god; to exalt

Movement Variations

Education

Transcendentalism influenced various facets of social reform, including education. When Alcott arrived in Boston in 1828, he had clear ideas about how children should be educated. As an idealist and visionary, he became deeply involved in the transcendentalist movement, driven by a strong desire to educate young children. Alcott believed that education was the key to improving society—an idea that remains influential in the twenty-first century. His focus on very young children was revolutionary during the nineteenth century, a time when it was commonly believed that young children were merely small adults.

Alcott crafted his educational model based on the philosophies of Plato. Plato believed that before birth, a person's soul existed in a spiritual realm alongside other souls awaiting birth. Upon birth, a person's soul was "called" to them. Alcott deduced that children, being closest to birth, were nearest to this spiritual state. He believed young children had superior intuition and their minds were more open and less burdened than those of adults. In his book American Transcendentalism, 1830–1860, Paul F. Boller encapsulates Alcott’s philosophy: “Education, then, should be directed to the very young, and it should be centered on drawing out of them the moral and spiritual truths latent in the intuitive Reason they all possess.” In 1834, Alcott established a school in the Masonic temple in Boston, later known as Temple School. Fuller also taught there. The school was attended by thirty boys and girls under the age of twelve. Alcott employed the Socratic method of teaching, encouraging students to find answers he believed they already knew. The curriculum included reading stories and poems and engaging in lively discussions. Alcott also emphasized the importance of physical activity for young children, dedicating part of their time to exercise.

The downfall of Temple School came with the publication of a book documenting “conversations” held at the school. These discussions were religious and considered radical, even blasphemous, because Alcott dared to explore scripture and its interpretation with young children. Although many transcendentalists supported him, he faced harsh criticism in the newspapers, leading to a significant drop in enrollment. By the late 1830s, the school closed, with the final blow being Alcott’s decision to admit a black child. While Alcott was progressive in his thinking, 1830s Boston was not ready for such ideas. He later founded an experimental community near Boston called Fruitlands, which remained small, never drawing more than a few people. Alcott’s daughter, Louisa May Alcott, went on to become an author, writing books for both adults and young readers, including Little Women.

The Transcendental Club

Transcendentalism was an intellectual movement distinguished by vibrant philosophical and moral discussions. The Transcendental Club was an informal assembly of thinkers who explored topics ranging from truth, reason, and spirituality to social reform and slavery. Their inaugural gathering took place in 1836 at George Ripley's residence in Boston. Regular participants included Emerson, Alcott, Fuller, Thoreau, James Freeman Clarke, Parker, Orestes Brownson, Channing, and Frederic Hedge. Critic Boller notes, “Alcott, along with Ralph Waldo Emerson . . . described it as ‘a company of earnest persons enjoying conversations on high themes and having much in common.’” The club's establishment signified the start of the transcendentalist movement. Although the meetings dwindled after a few years and eventually ended, the ideas exchanged and debated during these sessions continued to influence the movement in literary, philosophical, and religious contexts.

Compare and Contrast

Mid-Nineteenth Century: Black Americans remain enslaved, with several laws intensifying the slavery debate in the United States. Northern abolitionists actively oppose slavery, while former slaves publish narratives detailing their experiences. The nation eventually engages in a civil war over this issue, leading to the emancipation of all enslaved individuals.

Today: Although slavery was abolished nearly 150 years ago in America, African Americans still encounter discrimination and continue their struggle for equal access to economic opportunities.

Mid-Nineteenth Century: The 1830s witness the emergence of a distinct American literary tradition. Prior to this period, American literature was not taken seriously internationally. In his essay “The American Scholar,” Emerson advocates for the development of a unique intellectual and philosophical tradition in America.

Today: American literature is now a respected academic discipline, with numerous authors receiving Nobel prizes. The American literary tradition is rich and diverse, featuring voices from various cultures that reflect different races, ethnicities, religions, social classes, and sexual orientations.

Mid-Nineteenth Century: America experiences a surge of technological advancements. Railroads are constructed, the steam engine is developed, and the printing press is improved—signifying a changing world. The country transitions from a rural to an urban society, with rapid urban population growth and westward expansion.

Today: The pace of technological advancement has continued unabated since the nineteenth century. The twentieth century brought about significant transformations, including the invention of the airplane, television, computer, and numerous other modern conveniences.

Representative Works

The Blithedale Romance

Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel The Blithedale Romance, released in 1852, arrived in the wake of the transcendentalist movement. Although Hawthorne was not a central figure in Transcendentalism, his writing was influenced by its principles, and he is frequently associated with transcendentalist authors. The Blithedale Romance plays a significant role in the transcendentalist movement as it loosely portrays the story of Brook Farm, an experimental socialist community that included several transcendentalist thinkers and writers. Hawthorne's brief stay at Brook Farm left him disillusioned, and he used this experience as the basis for his fictional narrative, featuring characters like the intellectual feminist Zenobia (believed to represent Margaret Fuller), the philanthropist Hollingsworth, and the narrator, Miles Coverdale. Coverdale describes their intentions:

Our goal was to abandon all we had previously achieved, in order to demonstrate to humanity a life guided by principles different from the deceptive and harsh ones that have long underpinned human society.

However, by the novel's end, the Blithedale experiment collapses due to betrayals and complications, culminating in Zenobia's tragic drowning (mirroring Fuller's death in a shipwreck). At the time, critics debated the accuracy of Hawthorne's fictional representation and whether Coverdale served as his alter ego. They also questioned Hawthorne's view on socialism, pondering whether he saw it as a feasible alternative to the rising industrialism and poverty of the 19th century.

Leaves of Grass

When Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass was released in 1855, it stood out as a unique collection of poetry, unlike anything previously published by an American poet. Featuring long, flowing sentences within a free and liberated poetic structure, the poems in Leaves of Grass boldly explore themes of love, desire, Nature, and poetics. Although Whitman might not be as central to the transcendentalist movement as Emerson, it is undeniable that Leaves of Grass was influenced by and emerged from transcendentalist ideas. In these works, Whitman celebrates Nature and the soul's intrinsic connection to God through Nature. The title Leaves of Grass encapsulates the collection's main metaphor: that even a single blade of grass holds divine essence and is simultaneously a small component of the larger world.

In poems like “Song of Myself” and “I Sing the Body Electric,” Whitman expands the boundaries of Transcendentalism by exploring the body and sexuality. In “Song of Myself,” he asserts, “I am the poet of the Body, / and I am the poet of the soul.” “I Sing the Body Electric” opens with the striking declaration, “The armies of those I love encircle me, and I encircle them.” Whitman’s language is intensely physical and, at times, sexually explicit, expressing both heterosexual and homosexual desires. Critic M. Jimmie Killingsworth, in his essay “Whitman and the Gay American Ethos,” explains:

The prominence of sexuality in Leaves of Grass and Whitman's linguistic experimentation, particularly his use of free verse, along with his boldness in exploring metaphors and other literary devices, garnered him disdain from many critics of his era. However, it also established him as a hero among more unconventional individuals of his time and among later literary critics.

Both Emerson and Thoreau admired Whitman, as did a group of radical social reformers and freethinkers with whom he associated. As a trailblazer in poetry, Whitman influenced numerous modern poets, especially during the 1960s, a period marked by social protest and political change.

Nature

Emerson's Nature outlines the foundational principles of the transcendentalist movement in America. Published in 1836, Nature marked the beginning of the movement and ignited a decade of literary output by various transcendentalist authors. As the title suggests, the work examines Nature and humanity’s connection to it. Part philosophical discourse, part prose poem, Nature seeks to chart a course to spiritual enlightenment, beginning with not just the admiration and appreciation of Nature but also the belief in its divinity.

Emerson begins his essay by advocating for the development of an American intellectual tradition, a cause he was deeply passionate about. He states:

The preceding generations saw God and Nature directly; we see them through their perspective. . . . Why should we not have poetry and philosophy based on insight rather than tradition, and a religion revealed to us rather than a history of theirs?

Though Emerson and his fellow transcendentalists were influenced by British Romanticism and German philosophy, they were promoting a new way of thinking they deemed uniquely American. They aimed to break away from traditions that created barriers between humans and God. Emerson advocated for a religion rooted in democracy and connectedness, where every individual has equal access to spiritual enlightenment. He writes:

Standing on the bare ground,—my head immersed in the joyous air, and elevated into infinite space,—all petty self-importance disappears. I become a transparent eyeball; I am nothing; I see everything; the currents of the Universal Being flow through me; I am a part or particle of God.

Many critics interpret the image of the transparent eyeball as a central symbol of Transcendentalism, emphasizing the ability to perceive the divine and to "transcend" the soul. In this essay, Nature takes on a dynamic role. Emerson personifies abstract concepts like reason, understanding, love, truth, and freedom, as if they were characters in a play, interacting with them and exploring their interrelationships. While Nature is a challenging read, the transcendentalist movement itself was intense, engaging with lofty ideals and philosophical explorations. Shortly after its publication, Nature became a cornerstone of the movement.

Walden

Henry David Thoreau's Walden, released in 1854, is considered one of the most beloved works in American literature. Although it was published after the peak of the Transcendentalist movement, Walden was composed during the twenty-six months that Thoreau resided at Walden Pond. The book offers a comprehensive account of his life there and embodies Ralph Waldo Emerson's philosophy of self-reliance in a practical form.

During his time at Walden Pond, Thoreau constructed his own cabin using trees he felled himself, cultivated his own food, and generally embraced a lifestyle of self-reliance. Alongside a meticulous record of his expenses and budget during his stay, he extensively discusses the state of labor in America in the first chapter, titled “Economy.” Thoreau observed that industrialization had seized the nation and that people's labor was being exploited to sustain the system. His solution was intentional living, and Walden can be seen as a guide to this way of life. Thoreau articulates his motivations for the Walden experiment in the often-quoted and cherished lines:

I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived.

This kind of straightforward, poetic style permeates much of Walden. Similar to Emerson’s Nature, Walden is essentially a celebration of Nature and the spiritual insights it provides. If Nature lays out the theory of such a lifestyle, then Walden demonstrates it in action. This is one reason why Walden has remained relevant and continues to resonate with contemporary readers.

Woman in the Nineteenth Century

Published in 1845, Margaret Fuller’s Woman in the Nineteenth Century is a political and philosophical essay that amplifies women's voices throughout history and envisions a new conception of women's roles in society. According to literary critic Mary Kelley, it proposes “an alternative system of gender relations.” Fuller wrote this work during a time when women were unable to vote, file for divorce, or be taken seriously in the public sphere if they sought employment alongside men. She was acutely aware of women's lack of economic and political power and allied herself with suffragists of her time, such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton, to advocate for women's voting rights.

Woman in the Nineteenth Century is undeniably politically charged and offers a philosophical re-evaluation of gender roles. Fuller writes:

We would have every path laid open to Woman as freely as to Man. Were this done . . . we should see crystallizations more pure and of more various beauty. We believe the divine energy would pervade nature to a degree unknown in the history of former ages, and . . . a ravishing harmony of the spheres would ensue.

In this essay, Fuller promotes the idea of harmony and balance between public and private life, as well as between the marketplace and the household, rather than advocating for a strict divide. Fuller's argument is rich with literary and classical references, aiming to engage an educated audience, similar to the readers of works like Emerson’s Nature. Woman in the Nineteenth Century was warmly received by transcendentalists and women's rights advocates, solidifying its status as a cornerstone of first-wave feminism.

Adaptations

Robert D. Richardson, the author of Emerson: The Mind on Fire, appeared on CSPAN's Booknotes series to discuss his book and the life of Emerson. This interview was broadcast on August 13, 1995. For access to the tape, transcript, or a real-audio clip, please visit http://www.booknotes.org.

Musician Ken Pederson created a new-age CD titled Walden, drawing inspiration from Henry David Thoreau’s Walden. Pederson independently produced and released this CD in 1997.

In 1997, Audio Partners Publishing Corporation released Thoreau and Emerson: Nature and Spirit, a double audiocassette. These cassettes feature excerpts from the authors’ works focusing on themes of nature and spirituality.

Released in 1992 by Audio Literature, The Spiritual Light of Ralph Waldo Emerson is a double audiocassette that includes selections from Emerson’s writings.

Voices and Visions: Walt Whitman, a VHS videocassette released by Winstar in 1999, showcases twentieth-century poets reading Whitman’s poetry.

The VHS videocassette Walt Whitman and the Civil War, originally produced for PBS in 1998, is available through Monterey Video. It features Whitman’s poetry set to the context of the Civil War.

Bibliography

Sources

Boller, Paul F., American Transcendentalism, 1830–1860: An Intellectual Inquiry, Putnam, 1974.

Dickenson, Donna, Margaret Fuller: Writing a Woman’s Life, St. Martin’s Press, 1993.

Ericson, Edward L., Emerson on Transcendentalism, Ungar Publishing Company, 1986.

Glick, Wendell P., “A Concord Individualist,” in The Heath Anthology of American Literature, Vol. 1, edited by Paul Lauter, D.C. Heath and Company, 1994.

Kelley, Mary, The Portable Margaret Fuller, Penguin Books, 1994.

Killingsworth, M. Jimmie, “Whitman and the Gay American Ethos,” in A Historical Guide to Walt Whitman, edited by David S. Reynolds, Oxford University Press, 2000.

Lauter, Paul, ed., Introduction, in The Heath Anthology of American Literature, Vol. 1, D.C. Heath and Company, 1994.

Myerson, Joel, Critical Essays on Henry David Thoreau’s “Walden,” G. K. Hall & Co., 1988.

Reynolds, David S., ed., A Historical Guide to Walt Whitman, Oxford University Press, 2000.

Richardson, Robert D., Jr., Emerson: The Mind on Fire, University of California Press, 1995.