A renowned medieval Islamic scientist, al-Bīrūnī exemplified the cosmopolitan and scholarly atmosphere of what is known as the Islamic Renaissance, but his work remained unknown to the West until translations began to appear in the nineteenth century. Al-Bīrūnī was a prolific writer who generally exhibited a fierce desire for truth free of superstition and opinion and a rich understanding of the historical development of scientific theories and concepts. He also, even in his scientific treatises as well as in his cultural and historical works, displayed an interest in and knowledge of Islamic poetry. Often named one of the most original scholars of Islam, al-Bīrūnī significantly contributed to the establishment of the foundations of scientific investigative methods.

Biographical Information

Al-Bīrūnī was born and raised in the town of Khwarazm, which lies south of the Aral Sea; his family history and early life remain obscure, but his interest in scientific experimentation developed at a young age and was cultivated through formal studies with a well-known mathematician, Abu Nasr Mansur. Due to civil unrest, al-Bīrūnī was forced to interrupt his formal studies and soon found a patron in the ruler of Gurgan, to whom he dedicated his earliest extant work, the Chronology (written c. 1000), a treatise on time and various religious calendars. Around this time he also began a somewhat confrontational correspondence with one of his contemporaries, Avicenna, a philosopher and physician. In 1003 al-Bīrūnī moved to the court of the reigning Shah of Kwarazm, Abu'l 'Abbas Ma'mun, who was later overthrown by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna (in present-day Afghanistan)—both became patrons of al-Bīrūnī.

During these years, al-Bīrūnī produced more than one hundred separate works, devised numerous scientific instruments, and conducted astronomical, meteorological, and geographical experiments. Also during this period, al-Bīrūnī traveled extensively in India and learned Sanskrit in order to better comprehend the scientific, literary, and historical accomplishments of that culture. Although the date of his death is usually listed as 1048, some scholars contest this claim and suggest that he lived well past 1050.

Major Works

Al-Bīrūinī produced well over one hundred scholarly works, of which twenty-two have survived. His major works are primarily devoted to astronomy, but other prominent texts include his massive work entitled India and The Chronology of Ancient Nations. The latter studies the significance of time, particularly temporal cycles, in relation to religious beliefs—not only of Islam, but also of Judaism and Christianity. In his major works on astronomy—the Kitab fi istiāb al-wujuh fi sanāt alasturlab [Astrolabe] (1020?), the Tahdid nihayat al-amakin li-tashih masafat al-masakin (c. 1018), the Kitab fi ifrad al-magal fi amr al-zilal [Shadows] (c. 1021), and the Kitab al-tajhim li-awa'il sinait al-tanjim [Tafhim] (1040?)—al-Bīrūnī described the many instruments he invented and improved, as well as his extensive computations of geographical coordinates, and the nature and significance of shadows. He also wrote a comprehensive treatise, the Canon (c. 1030), intended to cover the standard problems of astronomy. These works combine theoretical speculations (such as those about the nature of the planets, gravity, and light) with mathematical proofs, experimental data, and historical accounts. In addition to these works, al-Bīrūnī's most famous and longest endeavor is his India (c. 1030), a work that presents Indian customs, beliefs, and scientific accomplishments, and frequently contrasts these practices with those of the Greeks. India covers religious, philosophical, literary, linguistic, cultural, geographical, and legal issues in what its author describes as a non-polemical manner. He also wrote a treatise on gems and precious metals, and one on pharmacology that provides a listing of medicinal substances as they are known in various cultures.

Textual History

Although al-Bīrūnī remained almost unknown to Western scholars until the modern period, he was a well-known and celebrated scholar in his own time, and his work has been preserved in Islamic centers of learning. One of the first of his works to be translated and published in English was India in 1888. Many manuscripts remain unpublished, but portions of most of al-Bīrūnī's have appeared in translation. A great deal of interest by Western scholars was sparked by the millennial anniversary of al-Bīrūnī's birth in 1973 which has resulted in more recent and more numerous translations.

Critical Reception

Most commentators on al-Bīrūnī's work emphasize the purity and strength of his desire for knowledge at a time when science and religion were deeply intertwined. His mastery of several languages in addition to Arabic, including Sanskrit, Greek, and Persian, enabled him to achieve a broader sense of historical and cultural knowledge and to compile information on the scientific achievements of a variety of thinkers and traditions. According to recent scholars, his unprejudiced view and critical alertness extended beyond his scientific observations and experiments to his work on history and religious beliefs. His wide range of knowledge and insistence on empirical verification are what distinguishes him from other Islamic scholars of the time. Al-Bīrūnī's work, though, tends more towards the compilation and testing of others' theoretical speculations, rather than the generation of original theories. He also is noted for his willingness to look beyond accepted sources to those of foreign cultures, although recent scholars argue that his tendency to privilege written work over oral traditions limited his examination of Indian culture, for instance. This tolerance and al-Bīrūnī's scorn for dogmatic religious belief have led some scholars to question his commitment to Islam, but most of the textual evidence indicates that he was a "sincere Muslim," in E. S. Kennedy's words. His major works are praised for the interweaving of poetry (some are al-Bīrūnī's own compositions), autobiographical remarks, and historical background. Despite the obstacles to his scientific work, such as the difficulty in transmitting information and the lack of certain instruments, critics commend al-Biruni for his attention to detail in observations, and his insistence upon accuracy and precision in his experiments and calculations. The rigor of his thought and the expansiveness of his interests characterize al-Bīrūnī as one of the most important scientists of medieval Islam.