still struggles with a variety of inner restraints and fails to call on Ellen, instead gazing up at her window from a bench below until night falls.

Edith Wharton opens The Age of Innocence at the opera, and the reader first glimpses the heroines through Lawrence Lefferts’ opera glass. It is a privileged glimpse, as is most of Wharton’s fiction; she lets the reader view an entire society through her eyes. This affluent New York society operates on a strict set of unwritten rules. Things happen the same way year after year; no one dares to deviate from the established traditions. Each year, always on the night an opera is seen, the Beauforts hold a ball. It is the only night of the year that they use their house’s ballroom. People know that the ball will begin in half an hour when Mrs. Beaufort rises at the end of the opera’s third act.

Something unusual happens, however, at this particular opera. Lawrence Lefferts spies Ellen Olenska in Mrs. Manson Mingott’s box. Since Ellen returned from Europe in disgraceful circumstances (having left her husband, a Polish count), it is considered a breach of form and good taste to invite her to one’s box. Gossip begins at once; people hardly watch the opera. Newland Archer, always the gentleman, goes to the box in midperformance to introduce himself. His fiancée, May Welland, is also in the Mingott box; she is beaming because of their recent engagement, that very afternoon. She and Newland are so thoroughly steeped and versed in their society’s way of thinking that they practically hold a conversation with their eyes alone. Ellen, on the other hand, jars Newland by speaking flippantly about everyone; she has no idea how critically they view her or how powerful they are. The society does attempt to ostracize her a few days later; as if on cue, everyone refuses invitations to a dinner in her honor.

As Newland helps Ellen adjust, giving her legal advice about her husband, he falls in love with her. The society does not allow divorce, though infidelity is accepted. Ellen wants desperately to obtain a divorce and leave her past behind; she sees divorce as freedom. While Newland cannot bear the thought of her returning to her husband, he advises her to remain married because of the pressures of the society. In society’s eyes, she should return to her wealthy husband, no matter how unhappy she was with him. The Age of Innocence shows how little concern this society has for a woman’s freedom; it cares only for maintaining appearances and preserving its traditions. Ellen is beautiful, intelligent, and charming; she wants also to be independent, but the society will not allow it.

The book’s second half begins with the marriage of Newland and May. He tries to settle into the normality of being married; they travel in Europe, then set up a house in New York. He imagines that his love for Ellen is a thing of the past. When he sees her for the first time in a year and a half, however, he quickly changes his mind, doubting that he can live without her. Now Newland is the one who desperately craves independence. He wants to run away with Ellen, but she refuses. Ironically, their views of the society have nearly reversed: Newland, so formerly respectful, would leave it in a second, while Ellen now wants to follow its rules. She eventually returns to Europe, but not back to her husband. Newland stays in New York, married to May.

Edith Wharton was the first woman to receive the Pulitzer Prize, winning it for The Age of Innocence in 1921. Her novels were enormously popular, and they were also critical successes. Nearly all of her work indicts society’s treatment of women. Wharton believed that American society did not grant women freedom, instead encouraging them to remain as children. The men in her novels do nothing to change the status quo, but with a few exceptions, the women do nothing as well. Women such as May Welland and Newland’s mother do everything that they can to preserve the society’s traditions. Ellen’s vibrant sexuality and her wish for a divorce are perceived as threats to the society’s stability. So in the end, she is banished to Europe. The society cares far less for her individual freedom than it does for its collective security and the perpetuation of its values.

May is described as a product of the social system, while Ellen is portrayed as a rebel. Lily Bart, in The House of Mirth (1905), and Charity Royall, in Summer (1917), are two other Wharton heroines who rebel against the norm. Lily Bart refuses to marry a rich husband or to become a mistress, despite enormous societal pressure. The society casts her off, and she dies of a drug overdose in a run-down boardinghouse. Charity Royall, an orphan, is reared by a man who wants to marry her. She longs to run away with a young man who comes to town, but she is seduced and abandoned. Pregnant and confused, she marries her guardian. These heroines all want a sense of freedom that society refuses to grant. Society is hostile and forbidding toward their sensual desires, and marriage serves as a trap that they cannot avoid.

Wharton herself had a disastrous marriage that contributed to her nervous breakdown in 1894; she eventually obtained a divorce. She spent most of her adult life in France, where she believed that women had greater equality with men than in the United States. The Age of Innocence was her last great novel. Just as society began to loosen its standards and to allow greater sexual freedom, Wharton turned to motherhood as a theme. Her later novels suggest that a woman’s first duty is to her family. Yet her strongest novels, including The Age of Innocence, argued against societal repression; they were widely read and appreciated during a pivotal time in the women’s movement.

Wealth in the North
Following the Civil War (1861-1865), the South lay in economic and structural ruin, while the North prospered. Southern wealth plummeted by sixty percent, whereas Northern wealth surged by fifty percent. Consequently, the 1870s saw a rise in affluent New Yorkers. This trend is epitomized by the character of Julius Beaufort, who has amassed a fortune. Though New York’s elite social circle typically shuns outsiders, Beaufort gains acceptance through his marriage to Regina Mingott, a member of a highly esteemed family.

As Northern wealth accumulated, New York became particularly ostentatious. The upper class reveled in theater and opera outings and hosted lavish parties. One notable example is Mrs. Stuyvesant Fish, who threw a dinner party in New York City to honor her dog, which arrived adorned with a $15,000 diamond collar. In The Age of Innocence, this extravagant lifestyle is mirrored through the opulent parties and luxuries enjoyed by the wealthy.

As the century drew to a close, wealth became increasingly concentrated among the upper class, giving rise to a burgeoning lower class. The underprivileged, toiling in sweatshops, factories, and mills, grew resentful of the affluent lifestyle. This discontent sparked strikes, riots, and widespread political corruption.

High SocietyThe Age of Innocence is set during the final days of New York’s high society, although its members were oblivious to the impending transformative changes. They convened at the opera house and adhered to a strict set of rules and conventions to guide their behavior. They showcased their wealth and gossiped behind each other's backs but remained respectful of societal norms. There were rigid expectations concerning appropriate attire, social events, home decor, and marriage.

Women
Despite their social power, society women were reliant on men for financial support. A woman from a wealthy family might have a dowry to bring into the marriage, but husbands were expected to fulfill all material needs. Women, especially in the upper class, were expected to conform to specific behaviors. They were to excel in domestic skills, like needlework, and never challenge men or be disagreeable. A virtuous woman was one who was attractive, graceful, and obedient. In The Age of Innocence, May embodies the ideal of New York society, while Ellen represents the early strides toward female independence outside the tightly-knit New York community.

In 1869, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton established the National Woman Suffrage Association. Well before the Civil War, women had started to gather and insist on their voices being acknowledged. During the period when Wharton's novel is set (1872), the women's movement had already begun, although it had not yet penetrated the insular world of New York society. Indeed, in 1872, Anthony made a bold move by going to the polls in Rochester, New York, and demanding the right to vote. Evidently, transformation within the traditional New York system was on the horizon.

Setting
The setting in The Age of Innocence is so prominent that it almost takes on the role of a character. Through intricate detail and rich description, Wharton vividly depicts the social world of the affluent in 1870s New York. The setting is crucial to the novel, beginning with a grand scene where everyone is dressed in their best for the opera. This immediately signals to the reader the dramatic backdrop of the story. Since modern readers are not familiar with the customs of old New York, details about carriages, social visits, and clothing provide essential context for the narrative.

James W. Tuttleton, in Dictionary of Literary Biography Volume Twelve: American Realists and Naturalists, observes that contemporary readers are more interested in "the spiritual portrait of the age" than in the minutiae of daily life in old New York, which is another aspect of the setting.

The society depicted is exclusive and takes pride in its elite status. Carol Wershoven, in The Female Intruder in the Novels of Edith Wharton, points out that the exclusion of "undesirables" from this social circle stems from a fear of reality. In this insular community, reputation, manners, and decorum are of utmost importance, and the dignity of one's family name is highly valued. Every event, from weddings to evenings at the opera, adheres strictly to propriety.

When May and Newland announce their engagement, they are expected to follow a series of social protocols because the "New York ritual was precise and inflexible in such matters." Subtle differences in dress, gestures, and word choices can have significant repercussions, and gossiping is deemed acceptable. This is the environment in which Newland has been raised and educated. Although he is at ease within it, he finds it stifling and narrow-minded.

Imagery and Symbolism
Wharton uses various images throughout the novel to offer subtle hints to the reader. May's mud-stained and torn wedding dress symbolizes the issues in her marriage to Newland. Anthropological terms like "clan," "tribe," and "totem" draw comparisons between New York's rigid social structure and less formal cultures of the past.

Newland's choice of flowers for May and Ellen reveals his perception of the two women. He sends pure white lilies-of-the-valley to May, symbolizing innocence and simplicity, traits he associates with her. Conversely, he sends vibrant, fiery-yellow roses to Ellen, indicating that he sees her as passionate, vibrant, and sexual. When Ellen and Newland are together, the narrator frequently mentions fire. Whether it's Newland resting his head on the mantle, a log snapping and flaring in the fireplace, or memories burning in Newland's heart, the imagery of fire underscores their smoldering passion.

Humor
Wharton is renowned for her sharp wit and subtle irony, but she also excels at employing overt exaggeration for comedic effect. In her portrayal of Catherine Mingott, one of society's most esteemed figures, the narrator notes in chapter 4:

The immense accretion of flesh which had descended on her in middle life like a flood of lava on a doomed city had transformed her from a plump, active little woman with a neatly-turned foot and ankle into something as vast and august as a natural phenomenon. ... [In the mirror she saw] an almost unwrinkled expanse of firm pink and white flesh, in the center of which the traces of a small face survived as if awaiting excavation.

Illustrating Mrs. Archer's joy over her son's impending marriage, Wharton writes in chapter 5 that Newland deserves to marry someone like May, "but young men are so foolish and incalculable—and some women so ensnaring and unscrupulous—that it was nothing short of a miracle to see one's only son safe past the Siren Isle and in the haven of a blameless domesticity."

Irony
Wharton employs irony in The Age of Innocence to expose the hypocrisies she perceives in New York society. When May and her parents travel to St. Augustine for the winter, Mrs. Welland arranges for a group of servants to ensure their comfort. As they sit down to an opulent breakfast, Mr. Welland tells Newland, "You see, my dear fellow, we camp—we literally camp. I tell my wife and May that I want to teach them how to rough it."

Later, in chapter 26, Mrs. Jackson criticizes the vanity of wearing extravagant new dresses, insisting that the proper approach is to buy dresses and wait a few years before wearing them. She then recalls another woman's dress from the previous year and how a panel was altered to make it appear new. She seemingly fails to realize that such meticulous attention to and memory of ladies' attire is precisely what fuels the vanity she condemns.

Wharton employs irony to render her protagonist, Newland Archer, profoundly tragic. Early in the novel, he is tasked with dissuading Ellen Olenska from pursuing a divorce. Despite his belief that she should be free to make her own choices, he agrees and tells her that obtaining a divorce would mean securing her happiness and freedom at the cost of her family's suffering. As the story progresses, he falls in love with Ellen, but she refuses to be with him because it would cause immense pain to Newland's wife. Newland's lesson to Ellen about not seeking happiness at others' expense comes back to haunt him. Additionally, it is ironic that May's family pressures Newland to approach Ellen about her divorce and support her. It is through May's family that he becomes acquainted with Ellen, and it is because of them that he cannot pursue a romantic relationship with her.

Irony is utilized for comedic effect as well as for tragedy. In a dramatic scene between May and Newland in chapter 10, Newland attempts to persuade her to move up their wedding date. She nonchalantly suggests they should elope. When he reacts positively to this idea, she retorts, "We can't behave like people in novels, though, can we?" The irony is that they are characters in a novel, showcasing Wharton's use of tongue-in-cheek humor to provide comic relief in an otherwise tense moment.

Edith Wharton uses a selective omniscient perspective throughout much of The Age of Innocence. Although the tale is narrated by an objective third person, large portions of the novel reveal primarily what Newland Archer perceives and contemplates. This approach aligns with Edith Wharton's intention, as Archer's moral awakening is the central theme of the story.

In other parts of the novel, especially those depicting New York's social customs at the opera or tedious gatherings, a satirical tone is evident. In these sections, Wharton highlights the narrow-mindedness and cultural naivety of what is fundamentally a provincial society.

In The Age of Innocence, Edith Wharton vividly brings to life the New York society of the 1870s. This society is characterized by a blend of naivety and authoritarianism. Although the upper-class men and women are unaware of the full spectrum of human emotions and experiences, they still demand absolute adherence to their societal norms and customs. Appearances, particularly regarding moral integrity and social conformity, are paramount: "What was or was not 'the thing' played a part as important in Newland Archer's New York as the inscrutable totem terrors that had ruled the destinies of his forefathers thousands of years ago."

1870s: The United States is in the process of recovering from the Civil War and has not yet emerged as a global power. Consequently, Americans are more focused on domestic issues and resources, often identifying themselves by their region.

Today: The United States holds significant influence globally, both economically and militarily. Americans show interest in both national and international matters. While regional pride persists, people generally identify themselves as Americans.

1870s: The society depicted in The Age of Innocence aims to shield itself from unpleasant realities. Members of this society refuse to admit intellectuals, artists, or writers into their circle, fearing they would introduce new and differing perspectives.

Today: "Unpleasantness" is widespread and often actively sought by the average American. Films and music containing violence and profanity are commonly consumed. Censorship is now a personal or family responsibility rather than a societal one. Many parents install blocking devices on home computers to shield their children from controversial online content.

1870s: After dinner, affluent men frequently retreat to their private libraries to enjoy cigars together. In these comfortable settings, they are free to discuss sensitive issues and business matters unsuitable for mixed company.

Today: Cigars have seen a resurgence in popularity, and many bars, restaurants, and social venues now cater to cigar enthusiasts. Like in the past, people gather to enjoy cigars and converse. However, since the late 1980s, the number of women who smoke cigars has markedly increased.

1870s: Women are expected to wear their wedding dresses at special events for up to two years after their weddings.

Today: Some women spend thousands of dollars on an elaborate wedding dress they will wear only once. After the wedding, these dresses are often preserved to prevent damage, with the hope that they may be worn by another family member in the future.

This work is influenced by several literary predecessors. The meticulous, realistic descriptions of social customs and rituals in the opening chapters of The Age of Innocence evoke Henry James's portrayals of similar scenes in his novels such as The American (1877), Washington Square (1881), and The Bostonians (1886).

Blake Nevius notes a parallel love theme in Madame de La Fayette's The Princess of Cleves (1678), which Wharton admired for its "story of hopeless love and mute renunciation." Nevius also identifies Balzac as a significant influence: "Balzac's endless curiosity about the minutiae of business and legal transactions, property rights, and the arts of decoration is almost matched by Edith Wharton's passion for the detail of costume and decor; and her notation of the manners of her class is as scrupulous as Balzac's notation of bourgeois manners in Cesar Birotteau or Eugenie Grandet."

In The Age of Innocence, Wharton reflects on the New York society of her youth from the vantage point of an expatriate residing in France, fifty years after the events depicted in the novel. By 1924, Wharton revisited this theme through a series of novellas that comprise Old New York. In these longer stories, she provides vivid portrayals of New York's social life during the mid-nineteenth century, utilizing her extensive knowledge of the city's settings, customs, and values.

The Age of Innocence was adapted into a highly acclaimed film in 1993, featuring Daniel Day-Lewis as Newland Archer, Michelle Pfeiffer as Countess Olenska, and Winona Ryder as May Welland Archer, under the direction of Martin Scorsese. The movie remains notably true to the original novel. However, there are some notable omissions and alterations: characters Medora Manson and Ned Winsett have been removed from the film, and the name "Dallas" has been changed to "Townsend" to avoid modern connotations that Edith Wharton could not have foreseen.

Scorsese adheres closely to the novel's sequence of events, using Joanne Woodward's voice for narrative coherence. This meticulous attention to detail imparts a distinctive sense of authenticity to the film. In casting his two leading actresses, Scorsese defied conventional casting choices. Based on their physical appearances, one might expect Pfeiffer, who is blonde and robust, to play May Welland, while Ryder, who is pale and delicate, would be cast as Countess Olenska. However, this unconventional casting decision proves effective. Both actresses deliver performances that deeply enrich the film's emotional depth.

The Age of Innocence was transformed into a silent film by Olga Printzlau and produced by Warner Brothers in 1924.

In 1934, RKO Radio Pictures, Inc. released a film adaptation of the novel, with Margaret Ayer Barnes, Victor Heerman, and Sarah Y. Mason contributing to the screenplay.

The most recent adaptation came in 1993, directed by Martin Scorsese for Columbia Pictures. Scorsese and Jay Cocks co-wrote the screenplay. The film featured Daniel Day-Lewis as Newland Archer, Michelle Pfeiffer as Countess Olenska, and Winona Ryder as May Welland.

A successful stage adaptation was performed on Broadway in 1929.

There have been numerous audio adaptations for those who prefer to listen to the story. These include releases by Books on Tape in 1982; Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group in 1992; Bantam BooksAudio and Random House in 1993; Big Ben Audio, Blackstone Audio, Dove Entertainment (narrated by Joanne Woodward), and Penguin Audiobooks in 1996; Bookcassette and Brilliance Corp. in 1997; and Audio Partners Publishing Corp. in 1999.

Bloom, Harold, ed., Edith Wharton: Modern Critical Views, Chelsea House, 1986.

Kellogg-Griffith, Grace, The Two Lives of Edith Wharton: The Woman and Her Work, Appleton-Century, 1965.

McDowell, Margaret B., Edith Wharton, in Twayne's United States Authors, G.K. Hall and Co., 1999.

Mizener, Arthur, "The Age of Innocence," in Twelve Great American Novels, New American Library, 1967, pp. 78—80.

Nevius, Blake, Edith Wharton, A Study of Her Fiction, University of California Press, 1953, pp. 185-7.

Phelps, William Lyon, "As Mrs. Wharton Sees Us," in New York Times Book Review, Vol. 53, October 17, 1920, pp. 1, 11.

Tuttleton, James W., "Edith Wharton," in Dictionary of Literary Biography Volume Twelve: American Realists and Naturalists, edited by Donald Pizer, Gale, 1982, pp. 433-50.

Van Doren, Carl, "Edith Wharton," in Contemporary American Novelists 1900-1920, Macmillan 1922 pp. 95-7.

Wershoven, Carol, The Female Intruder in the Novels of Edith Wharton, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1982, pp. 91-3.

Wharton, Edith, The Age of Innocence, introduction by Paul Montazzoli, Barnes & Noble, 1996.

Wolff, Cynthia Griffin, "Edith Wharton," in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume Nine: American Novelists, 1910-1945, edited by James J. Martine, Gale, 1981, pp. 126–42.

For Further Study

Bell, Millicent, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Edith Wharton, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
This collection features essays by both seasoned and emerging scholars who analyze Wharton's fiction. It is designed to be useful for both newcomers to Wharton's work and seasoned scholars.

Bloom, Harold, ed., Edith Wharton: Modern Critical Views, Chelsea House, 1986.
Renowned literary scholar Harold Bloom provides a thorough review and critique of Wharton's literary career.

Davis, Joy L., "The Ritual of Dining in Edith Wharton's The Age of Innocence," in Midwest Quarterly, Vol. 34, No. 4, Summer 1993, pp. 465-81.
Davis illustrates how dining scenes in the novel reflect broader plot developments. At the dining table, characters assert their places within the social hierarchy.

Godfrey, David A., "The Full and Elaborate Vocabulary of Evasion: The Language of Cowardice in Edith Wharton's Old New York," in Midwest Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 1, Autumn 1988, pp. 27–44.
Godfrey examines Wharton's use of language to highlight the norms of behavior and conduct among the old New York elite.

Hadley, Kathy Miller, "Ironic Structure and Untold Stories in The Age of Innocence," in Studies in the Novel, Vol. 23, No. 2, Summer 1991, pp. 262-72.
Hadley discusses the three different plot ideas Wharton considered for The Age of Innocence and explores why the chosen storyline was ultimately selected.

Hopkins, Viola, "The Ordering Style of The Age of Innocence," in American Literature, Vol. XXX, No. 3, November 1958, pp. 345-57.
Hopkins offers a comprehensive analysis of Wharton's use of imagery in the novel.

Wharton, Edith, A Backward Glance, Appleton-Century, 1934.
This autobiographical work by Wharton reflects on her life and career. Critics frequently reference this book for contextual insights into her work.