In Aristophanes’ comedy The Frogs, Aeschylus defends his work against Euripides’ challenges by emphasizing the heroic spirit and spectacle present in his plays. Aeschylus’ tragedies, such as The Persians and Seven Against Thebes, were known to inspire audiences with themes of valor and heroism, blending dramatic visuals with moral lessons. His contributions to Greek tragedy, reflected in works like The Oresteia and Prometheus Bound, remain central to understanding the evolution of dramatic literature.

Aeschylus and His Dramatic Style

Aeschylus’s work is characterized by a heroic spirit, didactic messages, and grand theatrical spectacles. These features are evident in his play The Persians, the earliest of his seven extant tragedies. In it, Aeschylus presents a balanced view of heroism, sympathetically portraying both Greeks and Persians. The Greeks’ victory is not solely attributed to their courage but also highlights the Persians' hubris, teaching that pride can lead to downfall. This lesson was particularly pertinent to the Athenians, who frequently needed reminders of the dangers of excessive pride throughout the fifth century b.c.e.

Spectacle and Innovation

Visual spectacle was a crucial aspect of Aeschylus’s plays, often achieved through striking costumes and dramatic scenes. For instance, Eumenides reportedly featured horrifying visuals of the Furies that unsettled audiences, while Libation Bearers displayed the blood-drenched bodies of Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. These vivid images, combined with Aeschylus's powerful verbal imagery, made his tragedies both gripping and memorable. Beyond spectacle, Aeschylus pioneered several key innovations in Greek tragedy. Aristotle credits him with introducing a second actor, thereby enhancing dialogue and allowing different viewpoints to be explored.

Theatrical and Thematic Contributions

The introduction of a second actor was pivotal in expanding the narrative possibilities of Greek tragedy. With this innovation, Aeschylus could construct more dynamic dialogues, explore complex interactions, and develop a richer dramatic experience. His plays focused less on individual characters and more on sweeping historical and religious themes. This approach is evident in connected trilogies such as The Oresteia, which traces the evolution of justice from familial retribution to civic law, or the Prometheus Bound, which explores the conflict between force and justice.

Exploring Moral Complexity

Aeschylus’s plays often grapple with profound theological questions, such as the reasons for human suffering and the allowance of evil by a supreme deity. While his contemporaries like Euripides examined human impulses, Aeschylus reimagined primitive myths with elevated moral and religious tones. His treatment of myths often removed moral ambiguities, as seen in Seven Against Thebes, where the defender of Thebes is portrayed as morally right. In the words of Aristophanes’ depiction of him in The Frogs, Aeschylus believed it was the poet’s duty to emphasize noble themes and avoid glorifying base truths.

The "Double Bind" and Human Struggle

Central to Aeschylus’s tragedies is the concept of the “double bind,” where characters face insurmountable dilemmas. Orestes, for example, must choose between avenging his father by killing his mother or abandoning his familial duty. Eteocles in Seven Against Thebes must defend Thebes against his brother or leave the city vulnerable. These scenarios highlight the inescapable moral and ethical challenges his characters face, reflecting the complexity of human struggles within the grand narratives of fate and divine will.

Language and Imagery

The grandeur of Aeschylus’s vision is mirrored in his language, which is rich in metaphor and complex structures. He famously used compound words and intricate grammatical constructions to elevate the dialogue’s nobility, reflecting the epic scope of his themes. The opening chorus of Agamemnon , for instance, uses descriptive language to enhance the dramatic atmosphere, portraying Agamemnon and his brother as "twin-throned and twin-sceptered" leaders....