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The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

by Mark Twain

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Historical Context

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Slavery

The issue of slavery threatened to split the nation as early as the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Over the years, several compromises were made by both sides to preserve the union. One of the most notable was the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The controversy began when Missouri sought to join the union as a slave state. To maintain a balance between free and slave states, Missouri was admitted as a slave state, while Maine entered as a free state. Although Congress rejected Missouri's proposal to ban free blacks from the state, it allowed a provision enabling the state's slaveholders to reclaim runaway slaves from neighboring free states.

The federal government also passed Fugitive Slave Laws to appease southern slaveholders. The first law, enacted in 1793, imposed a $500 fine on anyone aiding an escaping slave. By 1850, a second law was passed as slaveowners grew increasingly anxious about retaining their slaves amid rising abolitionism. The 1850 Fugitive Slave Law raised the fine for assisting a runaway slave to $1000, added a penalty of up to six months in prison, and required every U.S. citizen to help capture runaways. This law allowed southern slaveowners to claim their fugitive property without needing to provide proof of ownership. Northern whites and blacks were outraged by the law, which implicated all American citizens in the institution of slavery. Consequently, many who were previously indifferent to the issue became fervent supporters of the abolitionist movement.

One of those galvanized into action by the Fugitive Slave Law was Harriet Beecher Stowe. Her novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), rallied the North against slavery. Although numerous slave narratives had revealed the brutal realities of slavery to white Northerners, Stowe's novel had a more widespread impact. Abraham Lincoln reportedly remarked upon meeting her during the Civil War, "So you're the little lady who started this big war." White southerners also recognized the powerful influence of the national debate on slavery as expressed in print. Fearing the spread of such ideas to their slaves, many southern states enacted laws making it illegal to teach slaves to read. Missouri passed such a law in 1847.

Despite southern efforts to keep slaves ignorant of those willing to help them in the North, thousands of slaves escaped to free states. Many escape routes led to the Ohio River, which marked the southern border of the free states of Illinois and Indiana. The significant number of escaped slaves contradicted the southern myths of contented slaves.

Reconstruction

Although The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is set before the Civil War, it was written during the Reconstruction era, the period immediately following the Civil War when the Confederate states were reintegrated into the Union. Between 1865 and 1876, the South experienced significant and rapid changes: numerous schools for African Americans were established, black men secured the right to vote with the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 desegregated public spaces. However, these advancements were swiftly undermined by new Black Codes in the South that curtailed such rights. White southerners felt threatened by Northern Republicans who came to the South to steer Reconstruction. Particularly vexing to them was the newfound power of freed blacks, many of whom held political positions and owned businesses. Though African Americans saw some improvement during Reconstruction, their perceived influence was exaggerated by whites who clung to the ideology of white superiority that had justified slavery.

In reaction to this perceived threat, numerous terrorist groups emerged to intimidate freed blacks and white Republicans through vigilante violence. The Ku Klux Klan, the most notorious of these groups, was established in 1866. Attempts to dismantle these terrorist organizations were largely unsuccessful. By 1876, Democrats had regained control of the South, and by 1877, federal troops had withdrawn. The progress of Reconstruction and the rights gained by blacks began to vanish as former abolitionists lost interest in racial issues, and the nation became preoccupied with financial crises and conflicts with Native Americans in the West. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, new Jim Crow laws enforced segregation in public spaces in the South, culminating in the 1896 Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, which legalized segregation.

Minstrel Shows

Minstrel shows, the first indigenous form of American entertainment, thrived from the 1830s to the early twentieth century. For instance, in the 1860s, there were over a hundred minstrel groups in the country. Samuel Clemens expressed his fondness for minstrel shows in his posthumously published Autobiography, writing, "If I could have the nigger show back again in its pristine purity and perfection I should have but little further use for opera." His fascination with blackface entertainment influenced The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, where many critics believe he used its comedic elements to challenge the racial stereotypes upon which it was based.

Minstrel shows featured white performers in blackface and exaggerated costumes. These men played music, danced, and performed burlesque skits, but the central attraction was their exaggerated imitation of black speech and mannerisms, creating a stereotype of blacks as docile, cheerful, and ignorant. The shows also portrayed slavery as a natural and benign institution, with slaves depicted as content with their condition. These stereotypes helped to reinforce the belief among whites that blacks were inherently different and inferior. The minstrel show eventually declined as vaudeville, burlesque, and radio became the dominant forms of entertainment.

Expert Q&A

How does the church service in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn critique religion of Twain's era?

The church service in "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" critiques the religious hypocrisy of Twain's era by highlighting the contrast between Christian teachings and the behavior of its followers. The Grangerfords and Shepherdsons, who claim to be devout Christians, maintain a violent feud, bringing guns to church despite sermons on brotherly love. This satire underscores the failure of religion to transform believers' lives, as seen in their acceptance of slavery and ongoing violence.

What does Aunt Sally's reaction to a black man's death reveal about society's attitude towards blacks in Twain's work?

Aunt Sally's reaction to a black man's death highlights the societal attitudes in Twain's work, reflecting the dehumanization of African Americans. Her indifference, viewing the death as inconsequential, underscores the pervasive view of blacks as property rather than people. This response illustrates the hypocrisy of a society that values religious and moral righteousness but disregards black lives. Twain uses Aunt Sally to critique societal norms and emphasize the racial inequalities of his time.

How does the court's refusal to grant Huck's custody to Widow Douglas and Judge Thatcher reflect on society?

A.

What is the historical context of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn?

Set in the pre-Civil War South, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn reflects Mark Twain's critique of slavery and racial discrimination. Published in 1884, it follows the post-Civil War Reconstruction era, when African Americans gained new rights, but faced backlash, segregation, and the rise of the Ku Klux Klan. Twain uses Huck's journey to address the moral complexities of slavery and racism in a changing America.

What impact does The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn have on today's society?

One example of the impact The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has on current-day society lies in its racial slurs and the debates it has sparked over whether literature should be made "safe" for modern readers.

How does cultural diversity feature in Huck Finn and how does the 1884 time period influence it?

Cultural diversity in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is depicted through various societal groups, including middle-class townspeople, backwoods citizens, slaves, and runaways, reflecting the diverse cultures along the Mississippi River during the mid-19th century. The 1884 time period influences this portrayal, as it marks the end of slavery and the beginning of Reconstruction, highlighting the changing dynamics and challenges faced by former slaves amidst technological and societal shifts.

Besides the river, what pre-Civil War American characteristics does Twain depict in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn?

Besides the river, Twain depicts several pre-Civil War American characteristics, including the pervasive issue of slavery, as shown through Jim's escape and Huck's moral dilemmas. He also highlights societal attitudes towards race, children's rights, and parenting, exemplified by Huck's troubled relationship with his father. Twain portrays the prevalence of superstitions, the lack of centralized government authority, and the frontier spirit of innovation and compromise necessary for resolving local conflicts and living conditions.

Twain's satire of Southern culture in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

Mark Twain satirizes Southern culture in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by exposing its hypocrisy, racism, and romanticized notions of honor. Through characters like the feuding Grangerfords and Shepherdsons, and the gullible townspeople, Twain critiques the absurdity and moral contradictions of Southern society, ultimately questioning its values and social norms.

Social Concerns

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Though considered a classic, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has sparked controversy since its release. Shortly after its publication, the Concord Public Library in Massachusetts banned it. The Boston Transcript, reporting favorably on this decision, mentioned that the library committee deemed the book "the veriest trash" and "rough, coarse, and inelegant." Similarly, the Springfield Republican criticized the novel as "a gross trifling with every fine feeling" and "harmful." These early objections, based on the belief that only idealized depictions of young people are instructive, can be easily dismissed by contemporary readers. However, more serious are the accusations that the book promotes racism.

In 1957, junior and senior high schools in New York City removed the novel from their approved reading lists because it uses the term "nigger" and allegedly stereotypes the character Jim. More recently, several court cases have sought to remove the book from required reading lists on the grounds of racism. For instance, in 1982, an administrative aide at the Mark Twain Intermediate School in Fairfax County, Virginia, claimed, "The book is poison... it works against the idea that all men are created equal... anybody who teaches this book is a racist."

Some aspects of Jim's character do hint at stereotyping — his superstition, apparent passivity, and gullibility — but overall, he is portrayed as superior to the white characters in the book. Pap Finn's "whiteness" contrasts with Jim's color, as does his vice to Jim's virtue. Pap's whiteness is tied to his racism. He is described as "not like another man's white, but white to make a body sick, a white to make a body's flesh crawl — a tree toad white, a fish-belly white." He derives his sense of worth from feeling superior to black men, regardless of their achievements. Rather than demeaning Jim, Twain uses him as a benchmark to evaluate the other characters.

The impact of the term "nigger" cannot be ignored. Readers may be offended by its use if they approach the book without sufficient historical context. The characters' attitudes and language must be understood within the era they inhabit.

Compare and Contrast

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  • 1840s: Southern states implemented Slave Codes that denied slaves the right to own property, testify against whites in court, or enter into contracts. Additionally, slave marriages were not legally recognized.

    1884: During Reconstruction, Black Codes allowed African Americans to marry legally and own property, but also enforced curfews and segregation. The Fifteenth Amendment granted African American men the right to vote, although states often restricted this right.

    Today: Voting rights are universal for all citizens over eighteen, and other rights are not limited by race.

  • 1840s: Steamboats were the primary mode of travel, with the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers serving as key routes in the West.

    1884: Railroads had become the dominant form of mass transportation across America.

    Today: Trucks are the main method for transporting goods within the U.S., while airplanes and cars enable quick long-distance travel.

  • 1840s: Entertainment in America was beginning to thrive, featuring new literature like slave narratives and romantic adventures. The first minstrel show debuted in 1843.

    1884: Literature in the form of books and periodicals became widely accessible, and minstrel shows remained popular alongside ragtime music.

    Today: Entertainment, including film, television, and music, is a multi-billion-dollar industry.

  • 1840s: The Mississippi River's natural flow posed dangers for travel due to snags—large tree pieces lodged in the river.

    1884: The Mississippi River Commission, established in 1879, aimed to enhance navigation. Over the following decades, levees were constructed to reduce flooding issues.

    Today: The Mississippi River and its banks are carefully managed, ensuring safer navigation and reducing the frequency of floods.

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