A Horse and Two Goats

by R. K. Narayan

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Historical Context

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Colonial India

Indian culture has a history spanning over five millennia. Its renowned epics were crafted before A.D. 200, and splendid art and architecture emerged in the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. Starting in the 10th century, Muslim invaders began to raid and undermine the Buddhist kingdoms, leading to a succession of Muslim dynasties ruling the region now known as the Indian subcontinent for several centuries. By 1500, Europeans had also entered the fray, vying for dominance over Indian trade. In 1857, India fell under British rule. Similar to South Africa, Indians were governed by a foreign white minority, whose leadership was marked by racism and religious intolerance. India remained a British colony until 1947, when a protracted campaign of nonviolent civil disobedience led by Mohandas Gandhi convinced Britain to relinquish control back to the Indian people. The country was subsequently partitioned into two nations: India, a secular state with a Hindu majority, and Pakistan, a Muslim state. The late 1940s witnessed significant violence and conflict between Muslims and Hindus. Thus, the world from which Narayan was writing in the 1950s was both ancient, steeped in tradition and legend, and contemporary, grappling with its newfound identity.

Independent India

Following independence, India’s government, led by Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, embarked on a mission to bring peace and prosperity to all its citizens. The challenge was immense: although there was a desire to provide universal education, there was a shortage of teachers; and while the need to increase food production and distribution was clear, the necessary technology and skills were lacking. Despite the atmosphere of change, the daily lives of the impoverished, like Muni and his wife, remained largely unchanged for many years. ‘‘A Horse and Two Goats’’ is set less than a decade after independence, a period too brief for Muni to experience any real benefits from living in a sovereign nation. He still recoils from a white man in khaki, whom he assumes to be a British authority figure.

For Narayan, gaining independence allowed him to navigate the global stage with greater freedom. Despite this, he maintained his lifelong inclination to steer clear of politics in both his personal life and his writing. It's important to highlight that his decision to write and publish in English, which was his second language, stemmed from artistic rather than political motives. Raised as a Brahmin, a member of the highest Hindu caste, Narayan enjoyed a privileged education and a relatively comfortable life. He learned English in school, and as he honed his writing skills, he discovered that the English language—as spoken by Indians—was perfect for conveying his ideas and imagery with clarity.

However, by choosing to write in English, Narayan targeted an audience largely outside of India, since most Indians, like the character Muni, neither spoke nor read English. As a journalist and later as a somewhat international figure, Narayan experienced more of the world than Muni ever could. He had a unique understanding of the tensions between Indian and Western cultures because his life required him to navigate both worlds.

Literary Style

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Point of View and Narration

‘‘A Horse and Two Goats ’’ is narrated from a third-person perspective by an omniscient narrator who objectively reports the characters' words, actions, and memories without offering commentary or judgment. The narrator dispassionately describes the decay of Kritam and Muni’s decline, without expressing regret. Conversations between Muni and his wife, or Muni and the shopman, are relayed from Muni’s viewpoint, reflecting his calm acceptance of whatever fate brings. This restraint is crucial to the understated humor in the dialogue between Muni and the American....

(This entire section contains 541 words.)

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Narayan relies on the reader to discern the absurdity of their conversation without explicitly pointing out, ‘‘Notice that this response has nothing to do with the question asked,’’ or ‘‘See the irony in this remark.’’ When the two men part ways, each gaining something of value, the narrator— and the reader—refrains from labeling either character as foolish or malicious. By crafting a narrator who tells the story without passing judgment, Narayan introduces two believable characters with human flaws, yet evokes compassion and sympathy for both. The conflict is between two likable characters or two worthy cultures, rather than a battle of good versus evil.

Setting

The story is set in Kritam, described as ‘‘probably the tiniest’’ of India’s 700,000 villages. It consists of four streets lined with about thirty mud and thatch huts and one Big House made of brick and cement. Women cook using clay pots over clay stoves, and the huts lack running water and electricity. A few miles away, down a rough dirt track through arid fields of cactus and lantana bushes, lies a highway leading to the mountains, where a large construction project is underway. The encounter between Muni and the red-faced man is intended to occur between 1945, when televisions became widely available in America, and 1960, when the story was published, although the exact date is not crucial to the narrative. Even today, many villages around the world lack modern technological conveniences, and many travelers remain unaware that not everyone lives as they do.

Realism

Narayan’s fiction is often praised for its realism, offering a simple and accurate portrayal of everyday life as experienced by identifiable characters. In ‘‘A Horse and Two Goats’’, Narayan meticulously details Muni’s life: where he resides, what he eats, and how he coughs when he smokes his first cigarette. While many small details, such as the drumstick tree and the dhoti where Muni stores his hundred rupees, are distinctly Indian, they are also universal enough to be understood by an international audience. Narayan’s characters and stories transcend regional literature, resonating as universal narratives.

Humor

Humor plays a crucial role in ‘‘A Horse and Two Goats,’’ and grasping Narayan’s humor is essential to understanding his perspective. His humor, which is warm and sympathetic towards human nature and its quirks, is often contrasted with wit, which tends to be more critical of human imperfections. For Narayan, who views the world through his Hindu beliefs, human frailty and conflict are to be accepted and transcended, not condemned. When he develops the amusing characters of Muni and the American (who are likely the ‘‘two goats’’ mentioned in the title), he does so with gentle and kind laughter, rather than harsh criticism.

Compare and Contrast

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1947: A primary objective of India's new Constitution is to ensure free and compulsory education for all Indian children. By 1951, around 80% of Indian adults, including individuals like Muni, are illiterate.

1990s: Literacy rates among adults improve, with approximately 52% of the population considered literate—64% of men and 39% of women.

1951: Around 80% of Indian adults live in poverty, with an even higher percentage among children. Many lack access to clean water.

1997: Due to technological advancements and an expanding educated class involved in global trade, only one-third of India's population lives below the poverty line. Most villages now have access to safe drinking water.

1950s: For Muni, one hundred rupees is a significant sum, enough to contemplate building a small thatched roof and starting a modest food stand. This amount is twenty times his debt to the shopkeeper.

1998: The value of one hundred rupees is roughly equivalent to $2.35 in U.S. dollars.

1950s: Agricultural productivity is low, insufficient to feed India's 400 million population. Monsoons in 1951 and 1952 exacerbate the country's food shortages. By 1960, food grain production begins to rise.

1990s: India produces enough food to sustain its 935 million citizens and also manufactures its own steel, computer software, and nuclear energy.

Bibliography and Further Reading

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Sources

Ramana, P. S. Message in Design: A Study of R. K. Narayan’s Fiction. New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 1993, pp. 131-32.

Shack, Neville. Review of Under the Banyan Tree and Other Stories in Times Literary Supplement, October 18, 1985, p. 1168.

Taliaferro, Frances. Review of Under the Banyan Tree and Other Stories in Book World—The Washington Post, July 28, 1985, pp. 7, 13.

Trivedi, H. C., and N. C. Soni. ‘‘Short Stories of R. K. Narayan: An Estimate,’’ in Perspectives on R. K. Narayan, edited by Atma Ram. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1981, p. 191.

Walsh, William. R. K. Narayan: A Critical Appreciation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982, p. 100.

Further Reading

Johnson, Gordon. Cultural Atlas of India. New York: Facts on File, 1996. This book offers a comprehensive introduction to the cultural and political history of the Indian subcontinent, complete with detailed maps and numerous illustrations depicting the region's ethnic and religious diversity.

Kain, Geoffrey, editor. R. K. Narayan: Contemporary Critical Perspectives. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1993. This collection of essays primarily focuses on Narayan’s novels and his short fiction set in Malgudi, providing valuable insights into his themes and narrative techniques. The volume includes an interview by John Lowe, where Narayan intriguingly discusses his lack of interest in his own writing process.

Narayan, R. K. My Days: A Memoir. New York: Viking, 1974. This award-winning autobiography covers Narayan’s first 67 years and first 17 books in under 200 pages. His recounting of life in India and the impact of his family on his work reads like his finest fiction.

Walsh, William. R. K. Narayan: A Critical Appreciation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. Though somewhat dated, this remains the most accessible overview of Narayan’s life and work. It features a perceptive biography and an analysis of ‘‘A Horse and Two Goats.’’

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